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DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES 
FOR THE FARM 



BY 



MYRON L. FULLER, S.B. 

K 

Specialist on Underground Water Supplies, Formerly in Charge 
of Underground Waters in Eastern United States for 
U. S. Geological Survey, Author of "Under- 
ground Waters in the Eastern 
United States," etc. 



FIRST EDITION 

FIRST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 

1912 




Copyright, 191 2, 

BY 

MYRON L. FULLER 



Stanbope ipress 

F. H. GILSON COMPANY 
BOSTON, U.S.A. 






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PREFACE. 



The water-suppl}^ problems confronting the farmer are of 
vital importance. Unlike his city brother, who is provided with 
ample and carefully safeguarded water piped to his very sink or 
bath, the farmer is obliged to seek his own supply, and is com- 
pelled not only to install his own water-system but is forced to 
personally guard and protect it from contamination. In fact, he 
must be his own engineer of construction, maintenance and sani- 
tation. 

The questions he has to meet are far from simple, and, with 
nothing but tradition to guide him, it is inevitable that mistakes 
will be frequent and that farm water supplies will often be a 
menace to health if not the cause of actual disease and death. 

It is the object of this little book to explain to the agriculturist 
something of both the advantages and dangers of the common 
sources of domestic water supplies, including surface waters, 
springs and underground waters, and to point out to him the 
danger signals and indicate the steps to be taken to safeguard 
his supplies. 

The surface waters and springs are treated with comparative 
brevity, for their problems are relatively simple and familiar to 
the farmer. The occurrence and movements of the ground waters, 
on the other hand, are but hazily understood by the average 
farmer. It is for this reason, as well as because of the fact that 
such waters must necessarily be the most frequent source of farm 
supplies, that the ground waters and their recovery through wells 
are considered at such length. In a book aimed to assist the 
farmer the treatment must be as simple and free from technicali- 
ties as possible, and the engineer will necessarily miss in its pages 



iv PREFACE 

the precise and technical treatment that would be more suited to 
his requirements. 

No originality is claimed for the greater part of the subject 
matter, most of which is common knowledge and has previously 
appeared in publications of the writer and others in the reports of 
the U. S. Geological Survey, especially in "Underground waters 
for Farm Use" (Water-supply Paper 255) from which the greater 
part of the illustrations and considerable portions of the text have 
been extracted. "Well Drilling Methods" (Water-supply Paper 
257), by Isaiah Bowman, has also been drawn upon for many of 
the statements concerning drilling methods. 

The writer ventures to hope that the discussion of the ground 
waters, which is based on an experience of some years in charge of 
the underground water investigations in the eastern United States 
for the U. S. Geological Survey and on field examinations in more 
than twenty-five different states, will serve to remove some of the 
obscurity and mystery which surrounds them in the minds of 
many agriculturalists, and will lead to a clearer understanding of 
the principles involved in securing and protecting farm water 
supplies. 

MYRON L. FULLER. 

157 Spring St., 
Brockton, Mass. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

SOURCES OF WATER. 

Introduction. — Rainfall in the United States. — Run-off. — Evaporation. — Ab- 
sorption. — Recovery of natural supplies. — Sources of farm supplies. 

CHAPTER II. 
SURFACE WATERS. 

Sources. — Lakes. — Ponds. — Artificial Ponds, etc. — Streams. 

CHAPTER III. 

SPRINGS. 

What a spring is. — Source of water. — Kinds of springs. — Gravity springs. — Ar- 
tesian springs. — Seepage springs. — Tubular springs. — Fissure springs. — Im- 
portance of springs. — Safety of springs. — -Tests for pollution. — Protection of 
springs. — Protection of sink holes. — Piping of springs. 

CHAPTER IV. 

GROUND WATERS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE. 

Derivation of ground waters. — Absorptive capacity of soils and rocks. — Porosity of 
soils and rocks. — Total water in the ground. — Methods of absorption. — • Waters 
from lakes and streams. — Underground waters and mountains. — Underground 
rivers. — Underground lakes. — Temperature of underground waters. 

CHAPTER V. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

Classes of rocks. — Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits. — ■ Consolidated sedimentary 
rocks. ^ — Igneous rocks. — - Metamorphic and crystalline rocks. — Fossils. — For- 
mations. — Structures of rocks. 

CHAPTER VI. 

SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES. 

Waters of sands and gravels. — Waters of clays. — Waters of tills. — Waters of sand- 
stones, conglomerates and quartzites. — Waters of slates. — Waters of lime- 
stones. — Waters of granites, gneisses and schists. — Safety of rock waters. 



VI CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VII. 

LOCATION AND MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

Fallacy of the divining rod. — Basis of scientific location of underground waters. — 
The water-table. — Movements of ground waters. — Movements of shallow rock 
waters. — Movements and depth of deep seated waters. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

ARTESIAN FLOWS. 

Requisites of artesian flows. — Flows from sands and sandstones. — Flows from gla- 
cial materials. — Flows from limestones. — Flows from granites. — Flows from 
traps and lavas. — Location of flowing wells. — Relation of depth to flows. 

CHAPTER IX. 

WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Principal water provinces. — Area of Glacial Drift. — Weathered rocks. — The Atlantic 
Coastal Plain. — The Piedmont plateau. — Appalachian Mountains. — • The 
Mississippi-Great Lakes basin. — The High Plains. — The Rocky Mountain 
province. — The Great Basin. — The Pacific provinces. 

CHAPTER X. 

TYPES OF WELLS. 

Types of wells. — Types of curbings and casings. — Selection of type of well. — Yield 
as a factor in determining type of well. — ■ Relation of depth of water to type of 
well. — The cost factor. — Comparative safety of types. 

CHAPTER XL 

DUG WELLS. 

Advantages and disadvantages of dug wells. — Importance of proper location of dug 
wells. — Sources of pollution. — ^ The "safety distance " factor in the location of 
dug wells. Best situations for dug wells. — Size and depth of wells. — • Digging 
the well. — Protection of dug wells. — Cleaning the well. 

CHAPTER XII. 

BORED AND PUNCHED WELLS. 

Advantages and disadvantages. — Location and protection of bored and punched 
wells. — Sinking the bored well. — Sinking punched wells. — Depth of bored and 
punched wells. — Cleaning bored and punched wells. 



CONTENTS vii 



CHAPTER XIII. 

DRIVEN AND JET WELLS. 

Extensive use of driven wells. — Advantages and disadvantages of driven wells. — 
Location of driven wells. — Sinking the driven well. — Depths of driven wells. — 
Cleaning and care of driven wells. — Advantages and disadvantages of jet wells. 

— Location of jet wells. — Sinking jet wells. — Depth, size and care of jet wells. 

CHAPTER XIV 
DEEP WELLS. 

Types of deep wells. — Advantages and disadvantages of different types of deep wells. 

— Location of deep wells. — • Relation of depth and supply. — Relation of depth 
and head. — Relation of depth and quality. — Summary statement. — Protection 
of deep wells. 

CHAPTER XV. 

SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 

Shooting. — Use of steam jet. — Screening the well. — Setting the casing. — " Casing 
off." — Packing. — Plugging. — Corrosion of casings. 

CHAPTER XVI. 
COST OF DRILLING AND CASING. 

Variability of cost of wells. — Cost table for wells. — Cost of casing. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

METHODS OF RAISING WATER. 

Common methods. — Buckets. — Chain pumps. — Suction pumps. — Deep well 
pumps. — Force pumps. — Rotary pumps. — Centrifugal pumps. — Air lift. — 
Hydraulic rams. — Turbines. — Power for pumping. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS. 

Fluctuations of head. — Variations in yield. — Roiliness of well waters. — Blowing 
wells. — Breathing wells. — Sucking wells. — Freezing of wells. — Cause of phe- 
nomena. — Remedies for freezing wells. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

CISTERNS AND HOUSE TANKS. 

When cisterns are desirable. — Advantages of cisterns. — Disadvantages of cisterns. — 
Size of cistern required. — Location of cistern. — Construction and equipment. — 
Cistern filters. — Combination wells and cisterns. — House tanks. 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XX. 

FARM WATER- WORKS. 

Convenience of running water. — Methods of supplying running water. — .Gravity sup- 
plies from wells. — Gravity supplies from springs. — Gravity supplies from reser- 
voirs. — Gravity supplies from elevated tanks. — Pneumatic or pressure tanks. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATERS. 

Purity of rain water. — Sources of mineralization. — Hardness of well waters. — Water 
for boilers. — Harmless and harmful ingredients. — When well waters should be 
suspected. — Analyses and bacteriological examinations. — Simple sanitary tests. 

CHAPTER XXn. 

PURIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

Necessity of treating the waters. — Color. — Turbidity. — Odor and taste. — Iron. — 
Temporary hardness. — Permanent hardness. — Alkalinity. — Algae. — Bacteria. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fig. Page. 

1. Map showing mean annual rainfall of the United States 2 

2. Pollution of pond by stock 11 

3. Pollution of stream from outhouses 1 1 

4. Spring from bedded-limestone 15 

5. Subterranean stream in limestone 15 

6. Spring of gravity type fed from unconfined waters in porous sands 14 

7. Fissure spring (artesian type) 18 

8. Pollution of ground water by sewage discharging into sink 19 

9. Dairy spring from polluted underground stream 19 

10. Spring receiving pollution from stock and surface wash 23 

11. Spring receiving wash from fertilized land 23 

12. Polluted spring in center of city street 25 

13. Diagram showing manner in which springs may be polluted by subsurface 

drainage 26 

14. Relation of areas of outcrop to dip 31 

15. Section illustrating conditions governing movement of ground water away 

from streams or lakes 32 

16. Diagram showing relation between depth and permanence of wells 41 

17. Diagram showing action of clays or shales in confining water in sand or sand- 

stone 41 

18. Relative size and storage capacity of dug and drilled wells 42 

19. Arrangement of grains in sands and sandstones 42 

20. Grains in sand and sandstones with intervening pores filled with mineral 

matter 43 

21. Difference in conditions of adjacent wells in limestone 43 

22. Wells In jointed rocks 44 

23. Diagram showing possibility of pollution in till 45 

24. Limestone passage connected with sinks 46 

25. Section showing relation of water table to surface irregularities 51 

26. Map showing position of water table and lines of motion of ground water. ... 52 

27. Section of an artesian basin . 54 

28. Section showing transition from pervious to impervious bed 54 

29. Section illustrating artesian conditions in jointed crystalline rocks 55 

30. Section illustrating conditions of flow from solution passages in limestone. ... 55 

31. Section illustrating conditions of flow from vesicular trap 57 

32. Artesian system showing progressively higher outcrop of deeper beds 58 

33. Artesian system showing progressively lower outcrop of deeper beds 58 

34. Open dug well and wooden bucket 79 

35. Bored well, showing wooden curb and valve bucket 79 

36. Drive point and well augers 91 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page. 

37. Common form of well auger 93 

38. Common form of well borer 93 

39. Form of well borer 94 

40. Method of using well auger 94 

41. Special well auger for lifting boulders, etc 94 

42. Diagram showing advantages of packing with gravel 94 

43. Types of screens and well points 99 

44. Diagram showing formation of sand filter through pumping lOO 

45. Diagram showing method of sinking jet wells by hand 103 

46. Diagram showing outfit and process of sinking the deeper jet wells 103 

47. Hollow bit used in jet process 104 

48. Paddy or expansion bit used for reaming 104 

49. Diagram showing danger of pollution when casing is carried only to rock. ... Ill 

50. Well strainers 114 

51. Diagram of suction pump and chamber 122 

52. Properly protected dug well with pitcher pump 123 

53. Properly protected drilled well with deep well pump 123 

54. Common arrangements of deep well pumps 125 

55. Common form of force pump -. 126 

56. Common form of force pump. 126 

57. Siphon force pump 127 

58. Diagram showing principal of air lift 128 

59. Windmill supplying water pocket 131 

60. Artesian or flowing well 131 

61. Supposed conditions producing discoloration of waters in non-flowing wells. 139 

62. Conditions governing freezing in cased well . 140 

63. Conditions governing freezing in wells with leaky casings 141 

64. Conditions governing freezing in limestone wells , 142 

65. Combination well and cistern 149 



Domestic Water Supplies 
for the Farm 



CHAPTER I. 
SOURCES OF WATER. 

Introduction. — The agricultural lands of the United States, 
constituting, as they do, almost the whole of the eastern half of 
the country as well as a very large proportion of the habitable 
areas in the West, deserve to have especial attention paid to their 
needs. Of these needs few are greater than that of purer water 
supplies. Farms, which are generally remote from towns, cities 
or other areas of congested population, seem to be almost ideally 
situated for obtaining pure and wholesome water. Unfortunately, 
typhoid fever, which besides its propagation by flies, is known to 
be transmitted extensively by means of drinking water, or by 
milk, vegetables and other food which has come in contact with 
polluted water or with vessels which have contained it, is es- 
pecially common on farms, the sickness and death rate from this 
cause being usually considerably greater in country districts than 
in cities. 

The problem of securing water supplies that shall be adequate 
in quantity and, at the same time, safe and wholesome is, there- 
fore, one of the most vital of those confronting the farmer. Upon 
its correct solution health, prosperity and even life itself may de- 
pend. Fortunately, all natural waters, both surface and under- 
ground, are, except when polluted by human or animal agencies, 
generally safe; and, with the exception of a few sulphur and alka- 
line waters, are reasonably wholesome. 



2 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Rainfall in the United States. — The agricultural lands of the 
United States are, as a whole, blessed with a fairly liberal supply 
or precipitation. In the eastern half of the country the rainfall is 
plentiful, the yearly average varying from 20 to nearly 70 inches 
(see Fig. i). Rain to a depth of more than 60 inches a year falls 
on the Mississippi delta below New Orleans, and along the Gulf 
Coast from near Mobile, Alabama, to Tallahassee, Florida. A 
nearly equal amount falls In the higher mountains of western 




Fig. I. — Map showing mean annual rainfall of the United States. 

North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee, along the coast of 
North Carolina and in the Adirondack and White Mountains. 
In the Gulf and South Atlantic States the rainfall Is between 50 
and 60 inches a year; in the New England, Central Atlantic and 
Ohio River States, between 40 and 50 inches; in the upper Missis- 
sippi and Great Lake states, between 30 and 40 inches; and In 
northwestern Iowa and most of Minnesota, between 20 and 30 
inches. 

In the western part of the United States the distribution of the 
rainfall is much more irregular than in the eastern part. West- 



SOURCES OF WATER 3 

ward from a line drawn through the eastern part of the Dakotas, 
middle Nebraska, western Kansas and central Texas the rainfall 
decreases to less than 20 inches yearly, all of the Great Plains 
region being characterized by small rainfall. In the Black Hills, 
the Bighorn Mountains and the higher sections of the main chains 
of the Rocky Mountains the rainfall is 20 or 30 inches yearly; 
and in the high Sierra, the Cascades and the Coast Ranges it is 
70 inches or more, reaching a maximum of 150 inches in the Coast 
Ranges of Oregon, In the Great Basin region, between the 
Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Mountains, the rainfall is less 
than in any other section of the country, in places being as low as 
2 or 3 inches a year. 

Run-off . — Only a small part of the precipitation on most 
areas is disposed of directly by run-off, by far the greater part 
of the flow of the surface streams being supplied by waters that 
have first been absorbed by the ground, rather than by waters 
shed directly from the surrounding slopes. In arid regions, where 
the surface deposits are porous, the run-off is relatively small, but, 
owing to the fact that rain in these regions falls chiefly in sudden 
downpours, the annual run-off is not so small as would be indi- 
cated by the small annual precipitation. In humid regions and 
in places where the surface is composed of impervious materials 
the run-off is greater. Frozen, snow-covered and ice-covered 
ground yield especially large flood flows. Over frozen areas 
nearly all the rain water may at once join the streams, whereas in 
some sandy regions practically all the precipitation is absorbed by 
the soil. In the eastern half of the country the run-off will prob- 
ably not average more than 20 per cent of the rainfall. In the 
West, although the percentage of run-off in small areas is at 
times great, it is on the whole less than in the East, for much of 
the water that is not taken up directly is later absorbed from the 
streams by the dry, sandy soils. 

Evaporation. — Owing to the great humidity of the atmosphere 
during storms, evaporation while rain or snow is falling is small. 
Snow may remain on the ground a long time, and, as a rule, is 



4 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

evaporated to a greater degree than rain, especially during periods 
of sunshine and warm winds that follow storms. The evapora- 
tion from different areas also differs greatly. From forest- 
covered soils it is relatively small ; from open plains it is relatively 
large. 

Absorption. — The rain water that Is not evaporated Immedi- 
ately or carried off by streams sinks into the ground. The ground 
receives the greater part of the rainfall, probably nearly 80 per 
cent in the eastern United States and 90 or 95 per cent in much of 
the West. Absorption by the underlying rocks takes place both 
directly and indirectly. Rain may fall on the surface of the rocks 
and be absorbed in their pores, fissures and cavities, or It may be 
first absorbed by loose, unconsolidated surface deposits and after- 
wards carried down into the rocks, or it may be gathered Into 
streams that flow over rock surfaces and from these gradually 
absorbed by the underlying rocks. The amount of rainfall that 
the rocks absorb indirectly is far greater than that which they 
absorb directly. 

Water that enters sands and gravels generally moves toward 
the streams rather than away from them, but in regions where the 
rainfall is small the gravels may absorb water from the streams 
which rise In regions of greater rainfall. 

Recovery of Natural Supplies. — Of the surface waters ponds 
and lakes are directly available as sources of water supplies, and 
streams may be made so by the simple process of Impounding the 
waters by dams. The waters of springs may likewise be collected 
in reservoirs and distributed as desired. 

The recovery of ground waters presents more difficulties. Not 
only must wells be sunk, often to great depths and at heavy ex- 
pense, but pumps and even power must usually be provided for 
raising the water to the surface, the only exception being those 
artesian wells whose waters are under sufficient head to bring 
them to the surface and give rise to natural flows. 

Sources of Farm Supplies. — The sources of the water used on 
the farm are numerous — lakes, streams, springs, drilled, bored, 



SOURCES OF WATER 5 

driven and dug wells and cisterns all being extensively used, al- 
though the water from lakes and streams is generally used only 
for stock. Each of these sources under some conditions may yield 
entirely safe and satisfactory supplies, while under other con- 
ditions certain of them may be a constant menace to the health. 
Of the various sources mentioned the ground water is on the 
whole the most satisfactory for farm use, because it is least liable 
to pollution, and streams and ponds are the most unsatisfactory, 
because of the ease and frequency with which they are contami- 
nated. Fortunately, however, the latter are very seldom used for 
drinking and domestic purposes, being utilized mainly for stock, 
on which the effect of moderate pollution is not apparent. The 
underground supplies, whether from wells or springs, although safe 
in many localities, are far from being universally so, the safety de- 
pending mainly on their location and on the nature of their pro- 
tection. These are discussed in the following sections. 



CHAPTER II. 
SURFACE WATERS. 

Sources. — Under "surface waters, as. the term is here used, are 
included those waters which occupy basin-hke depressions in the 
surface, giving rise to lakes and ponds, or flow as streams down 
its valleys. The waters of such lakes and streams do not repre- 
sent simply the collected rainfall from the surface, by far the 
greater part coming, as a matter of fact, from the ground and rep- 
resenting the surplus precipitation which was first absorbed by 
the soils and rocks and later set free to swell the surface drainage. 

Springs are intermediate between ground water and surface 
supplies, and are classed sometimes with the one and sometimes 
with the other, according as the ground water origin of the supply 
or the surficial situation of the spring is considered as most sig- 
nificant. In the present discussion they are considered in a 
chapter by themselves. 

Besides the natural surface-water bodies, which include the 
lakes, ponds, pockets and " tanks " on the one hand and the 
brooks, streams and rivers on the other, there are the artificial 
pools, ponds, and reservoirs, all of which, under certain circum- 
stances, are in common use as sources of farm supplies. 

Lakes. — The waters of lakes, which here include all fresh- 
water bodies a mile or more in diameter, are generally good, 
except when they are polluted by the drainage or sewage from 
cities or large towns on their shores or on the lower courses of 
tributary streams. In ponds and in the smaller lakes such pollu- 
tion may render the entire body of water unsafe for domestic use. 

Sunlight, however, has a marked purifying action, tending to 
destroy the dangerous germs, while, under the action of winds, 
wave action and circulation are induced in the water, favoring 
aeration (mixture with air), which, by oxidation, likewise helps to 



SURFACE WATERS 7 

remove the dangerous impurities. At the same time the heavier 
sediment brought in by the streams is constantly settUng to the 
bottom. As a result of all these processes of purification the 
water which entered in a polluted state may at last become so 
changed that on leaving the lake at its outlet it is both palatable 
and wholesome. 

So rapidly has this purifying action been supposed to take 
place that before the construction of the Chicago drainage canal 
it was thought safe by some to draw the supply of the city from 
Lake Michigan at a distance of only a few miles offshore. Ex- 
perience proved, however, that while noticeable pollution was con- 
fined to a relatively small portion of the lake, and while normally 
the city supply was fairly safe, it was, nevertheless, under certain 
conditions of wind and currents, liable to pollution. It was thus 
necessary either to remove the intake to a point several miles 
farther away or to divert the sewage from the lake. The Chicago 
drainage canal, by diverting the sewage, has done much to solve 
the problem. 

Natural lakes are confined almost wholly to the northern por- 
tion of the country, where they form a belt extending from eastern 
North Dakota to eastern Maine. In this belt, besides the Great 
Lakes, there are tens of thousands of smaller lakes, Minnesota 
alone having several thousand. 

Most of the lakes, especially the smaller ones, are in thinly 
inhabited regions and afford supplies of high purity. Unfortu- 
nately, however, owing to the fact that farmhouses, even if in the 
vicinity of lakes, are usually placed on high ground at some dis- 
tance from the water it is necessary, if the lake is used as a source 
of supply, to haul the water required for domestic purposes. Be- 
cause of the inconvenience thereby entailed few of the lakes are 
used, although they constitute ideal supplies for horses and cattle 
and furnish pure water to those cities which lie within convenient 
piping distance from them. 

Ponds. — In the smaller water bodies, varying from mere 
pools to lakelets several acres in extent, there is less dilution of the 



8 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

impurities washed into them than in the lakes and large ponds, 
and even where there are both an inlet and an outlet there is 
often a tendency for the main current to pass directly from the 
inlet to the outlet without mixing with the water as a whole, the 
greater part of the lake thus remaining relatively stagnant. The 
entrance of a very slight amount of polluting matter into such 
waters may dangerously affect their quality. 

Owing to the slight circulation in these small bodies of water 
decaying leaves and twigs will frequently accumulate and, to- 
gether with the growth of water organisms, will give the water an 
amber or even a dark-brownish color and a noticeable taste. 
Such coloration does not make the water dangerous any more 
than the green algous slime that collects on the surface (most of 
which is perfectly innocent), but both are indications of stagnant 
conditions that are repugnant to the mind and may mask danger- 
ous impurities. On the bottoms of ponds of this sort there are 
usually accumulations of decaying vegetable matter mixed with 
silt, which are very objectionable in water to be used for drinking. 
It Is such accumulations which give off the bubbles of gas that 
may be seen rising to the surface when the bottom is disturbed. 

Not all small ponds, however, should be condemned because 
of their size. Many are fed by springs, are free from pollution 
and contain water as clear and cool as could be desired. Such 
ponds may be used to advantage for domestic supplies, although 
as the farmhouses are usually situated at a distance from the 
water they are seldom used except for watering stock. 

Many of the water pockets or " tanks " of the deserts, in part 
natural and In part artificial, are also entirely unsafe even for 
stock use, although as they constitute the only source of water In 
many regions such use Is unavoidable. In fact, the upbuilding of 
considerable grazing industries has been made possible by such 
water pockets in otherwise waterless regions. 

Artificial Ponds, etc. — In some of the prairie and semi- 
desert regions, where streams are relatively few in number or even 
absent over large areas, and where wells do not yield sufficient 



SURFACE WATERS 9 

supplies, water is often obtained from artificial ponds. These are 
usually formed by throwing up a low embankment across some 
shallow depression or flood-water channel, behind which the rain 
water or the brief flood flow accumulates. Such reservoirs are com- 
monly but a few rods in diameter and a few feet in depth. As a 
consequence the water becomes heated in summer, is usually kept 
constantly muddy by the movements of stock, and is highly 
polluted by them. (See Fig. 2.) As numerous animal diseases 
may be communicated through drinking water, small ponds of 
this sort may become a source of great danger. 

In hilly regions it is often possible, by erecting a short dam 
across some small valley or ravine, to pond the water of some 
spring or brook, forming a small reservoir from which the water 
may often be piped to the farm buildings below. If the spring or 
stream furnishing the supply is protected from cattle, from wash 
or seepage from pastures, roads, and barnyards and from sources 
of human pollution, such reservoirs will often provide admirable 
supplies. This is especially true of the farms in valleys bordered 
by wooded hills such as abound throughout the Appalachian 
Mountains of the East and the larger mountain systems of the 
West. 

Streams. — Over a large part of the country streams and 
rivers form the most available sources of supply, and in thinly 
settled regions they are usually free from contamination, although 
even here a tan-bark plant or sawmill may lessen the desirability 
of the water for domestic purposes. 

Mines, especially coal mines, may likewise discharge their 
drainage of acid and otherwise polluted waters into the streams 
with similar effects, but the most common source of pollution is 
the sewage from towns and cities. In fact, practically all the 
larger streams, and even many of the smaller ones, are highly 
polluted by such sewage or by refuse from various manufacturing 
plants. It is true that such streams become gradually purified 
and under ordinary conditions may be fairly safe, but the periodic 
outbreaks of typhoid fever that occur among the users of their 



lo DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

water are sufficient to indicate the imperfect nature of this puri- 
fication. 

Large cities without other accessible sources will doubtless 
continue to use river waters, but these waters are now, as a rule, 
scientifically filtered before distribution. On most farms, how- 
ever, other and safer sources are available, and stream waters 
which are known to have received drainage or sewage from any 
source should not be used for drinking. (See Fig. 3.) In the 
larger streams the pollution is rarely high, and many of them will 
afford satisfactory supplies for stock. 




Fig. 2. — Pollution of pond by stock. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 




Fig. 3. — Pollution of stream from outhouses. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 
(II) 



CHAPTER III. 
SPRINGS. 

What a Spring Is. — The term " spring " is properly applied 
to the water emerging from the ground at a single point or within 
a restricted area. The distinction between springs and general 
seepage, however, is not always very sharp, for there are all gra- 
dations between the concentrated outflows characterizing true 
springs and the diffused emergence of water over large areas or 
beneath the level of the water in streams. 

In size springs vary from the little pools only a few inches 
across and barely overflowing their tiny depressions to immense 
basins like that of Silver Spring in Florida, which is navigable by 
steamboats and gives rise to a river several rods in breadth. 

In manner of emergence there is likewise a wide divergence. 
By far the greatest number of springs probably emerge in the 
beds or banks of streams or ponds, but they are inconspicuous 
and often almost unsuspected. The base of steep bluffs is also a 
favorable point for the emergence of the ground water, and is 
often dotted with a line of springs. Springs are by no means con- 
fined to such situations, however. Many boil up through the 
soils of perfectly fiat plains, while others gush forth as cascades 
from the rocks. (Fig. 4.) 

Allied to the springs, and often classed with them, are the un- 
derground streams that sometimes flow forth in limestone regions 
from the subterranean caverns. Some are almost rivers in size. 
A good example of a subterranean stream of this sort is shown in 
Figure 5. 

Source of Water. — The water of all springs Is of subterranean 
origin, the supply coming from the great underground water body 
fed by precipitation falling upon and absorbed by the soil and 
rocks. The greater part of the water is naturally from shallow 

13 



14 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



sources, much of it from the superficial soil, but considerable 
quantities come from deeper sources, perhaps from hundreds of 
feet down in the rocks. 

Kinds of Springs. — Springs may be divided, according to 
their mode of origin, into gravity and artesian springs, and, ac- 
cording to the nature of the passages traversed by the water, into 
seepage, tubular and fissure springs. 

Gravity Springs. — A gravity spring is one whose water is not 
confined between impervious beds but flows from loose materials 




Fig. 6. — Spring of gravity type fed from unconfined waters in porous sands. 

or open passages under the action of gravity, just as a surface 
stream flows down its channel. The conditions are shown in 
Figure 6. 

Artesian Springs. — An artesian spring is one whose waters 
are confined in impervious channels or between impervious beds 
and are under hydrostatic pressure because the water level at their 
source is higher than the point where they emerge. The waters 
of such a spring, if confined in a pipe instead of being allowed to 
flow out upon the ground, may rise considerably above the spring 
mouth. (Fig. 7.) 

Seepage Springs. — Seepage springs are springs In which the 
water seeps out of sand or gravel ; they differ from general seepage 
only in being restricted to a small area. Such springs are usually 
marked by abundant vegetation at their points of emergence, and 
their waters are often colored or carry an oily scum due to the 
decomposition of vegetable matter or the presence of iron. The 
scum is frequently mistaken for petroleum. The waters of the 
seepage springs commonly come from no great distance beneath 
the surface and are not usually very cold. 




Fig. 4. — Spring from bedded limestone. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 







Fig. 5. — Subterranean stream in limestone. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 
(IS) 



SPRINGS 17 

Seepage springs may emerge along the top of an underlying 
impervious bed, but more commonly they occur where valleys are 
cut downward into the zone of saturation of a more or less uni- 
form water-bearing deposit. Under favorable conditions the seep- 
age from sands, as on Long Island, New York, gathers into 
channels and forms streams of considerable size, some of them 
flowing 5,000,000 gallons or more daily. 

Seepage springs, as in the cases cited, are commonly of the 
gravity type, but where channels or fissures emerge beneath beds 
of sand or gravel seepages not infrequently result from true arte- 
sian springs. 

Tubular Springs. — Tubular springs embrace a great variety 
of flows, including both those in the small more or less tubular 
passages In the drift and those occupying large solution channels 
or caverns in the soluble rocks. 

The channels of springs in the drift are generally established 
along some more or less sandy or other porous layer, or perhaps 
along the path left by a decaying root. The motion at first ap- 
pears to have been mainly that of seepage, but in many springs a 
passageway has been gradually opened, along which a definite 
stream finds its way. The waters reach the channels by percolation 
through the clays and sands and are usually free from pollution 
except when near cesspools or vaults sunk some distance into the 
ground. 

In limestones and other soluble rocks the underground pas- 
sages may reach many miles in length. Single passages, as in the 
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, have been traversed for a distance 
of many miles, and passages several times as long, though as 
yet undiscovered, probably exist. Some of these passages are 
many feet in diameter and are traversed by streams of considerable 
size, or even by rivers. The Silver Springs of Florida give rise to 
a river which is navigable from the ocean to its source in the 
springs, and springs of similar volume occur at other points in 
Florida and Arkansas and possibly elsewhere. The waters of 
such springs vary greatly in composition, although most of them 



i8 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

are hard. In some springs the waters are exceedingly clear, the 
bottoms being distinctly visible at a depth of many feet, but in 
others the waters are muddy after severe storms. When clear it 
is probable that the waters feeding the underground stream 
reached it by percolation through the porous earth or rock, during 
which its impurities were largely removed. Where muddy the 
waters in part appear to have penetrated downward through 
sinks or to have entered the rock directly as streams; in either 
case they are very liable to pollution by impurities washed in with 
the water. 

Tubular springs are most commonly of the gravity type, the 
channels generally sloping from higher to lower levels. In both 
drift and limestone, however, there are numerous exceptional 
springs whose channels are at some points in their courses con- 
siderably lower than their outlets. Under such conditions the 
water may be under considerable artesian pressure in the lower 
parts of its channel or even at its outlet. 

Fissure Springs. — The term fissure spring is here used rather 
comprehensively to include the springs issuing along bedding, 




Fig. 7. — Fissure spring (artesian type). 

joint, cleavage or fault planes. (See Fig. 7.) The distinguishing 
feature is a break in the rocks along which the waters can pass, it 
being immaterial whether any considerable open space exists. 
These springs differ from tubular springs in that they are as a 
class of deeper-seated origin, as is attested by their temperatures. 
The waters are almost never subjected to contamination, though 
in many springs they are highly mineralized. Springs of this class 
are often distributed along straight lines for considerable distances, 
their position being determined by lines of fracture or jointing. 




Fig. 8. — Pollution of ground water by sewage discharging into sink hole. 
(Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) • 




Fig. 9. — Dairy spring from polluted underground stream. (Photo by U. S. Geological 

Survey.) 
(19) 



SPRINGS 21 

Importance of Springs. — Springs usually form an ideal source 
of farm supply. Occurring in great abundance in many of the 
thinly settled regions and coming from considerable depths within 
the rock or filtering from sand or gravel, they are almost always 
free from pollution except where buildings are situated on the 
hillsides above them or where surface wash is allowed to enter 
them. 

In the more hilly regions, such as those of New Hampshire and 
Vermont, especially where the farms lie in the valley, the water 
from hillside springs can usually be piped with little difficulty to 
the house and barn, where it flows as a steady stream under the 
influence of gravity alone. A farm supplied from such a source 
is fortunate indeed. Hydraulic rams are often successfully used 
in lifting spring waters to buildings high above their source. 

Safety of Springs. — Natural spring water is almost never 
dangerous to health, as the minerals it contains in solution are 
generally harmless, although a few waters act as a physic and 
others may contain sulphur gases in disagreeable amounts. 

Springs from sands, sandstones, clays, shales and slates are 
seldom polluted, except where contaminating matter penetrates 
through cracks or fissures, or through the material itself where 
the covering above the water is very thin. Usually such pollution 
is likely to occur only where houses, barns, sewers or cesspools are 
located on higher ground near the spring, or more especially 
where cities or towns are so located. In limestones, on the 
contrary, sewage or other polluting matter frequently enters the 
underground channels through the sinks (Fig. 8) and may contami- 
nate the underground water for long distances. Similarly in the 
tubular channels in the till, if material from a cesspool or other 
source of pollution finds access, the water may retain its contami- 
nation for a long period and a great distance. 

Tests for Pollution. — There is no infallible chemical test for 
the detection of pollution in small amounts. If a chemist is 
thoroughly familiar with the normal character of water in the im- 
mediate vicinity he may be able to detect contamination by 



22 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

means of chemical examination; but waters contain so many 
harmless substances dissolved from the earth that the determina- 
tions by a chemist are often inconclusive. Careful observation of 
the spring itself and a common-sense inspection of its surround- 
ings are usually of more value than an analysis. The spring 
should be protected from pollution, especially from surface drain- 
age from houses, barns, hogpens and other outhouses that are 
situated on the slopes above it within a distance of several hundred 
feet. When the absence of such local sources of pollution is es- 
tablished the water should be carefully watched, especially in 
limestone regions, for muddiness or floating matter rising with the 
water after severe rains. Such phenomena are evidence of con- 
nection with sink holes and indicate that the water is to be looked 
upon with grave suspicion if opportunity exists anywhere within 
miles for the entrance of polluting matter through sinks or other- 
wise. Figure 9 shows a spring in Greene County, Missouri, used 
for dairy purposes. The spring is remote from buildings and the 
water is clear, cold and sparkling, but is, nevertheless, more or 
less polluted, owing to the fact that the underground stream feed- 
ing the spring appears at the surface at a number of points above 
it, crossing one or more highways and receiving the drainage from 
them and from a cemetery. 

Protection of Springs. — One of the most common causes of 
contamination of springs in the farming districts arises from fail- 
ure to fence the springs to prevent the access of stock. Figure 10 
shows a mineral spring In Georgia from which many people drink 
and from which the waters have at times been shipped, but about 
which stock are nevertheless allowed to roam freely, drinking 
from it at will and incidentally contaminating it in a variety of 
ways. It is needless to say that any spring used for drinking 
water should be carefully fenced at such a distance as to prevent 
any excrement from reaching it. 

The spring mentioned above is located only a few inches above 
the bottom of the stream channel shown on the right of the view. 
When the picture was taken no water was flowing in the channel, 




Fig. 10. — Spring receiving pollution from stock. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 




Fig. II. — Spring receiving wash from fertilized land. (Photo by U. S. Geological 

Survey.) 

(23) 



SPRINGS 



25 



but at times of rain considerable volumes of water descend along 
the depression, covering the spring and washing into it all sorts of 
refuse from the hillsides above. Figure 1 1 shows another spring, 
located in Missouri, receiving the drainage from a cornfield, to- 
gether with such manure or other fertilizer as may be used in the 
cultivation of the crops. This water, which carries both sulphur 
and Epsom salts, is considered of medicinal value, but it is clear 
that, situated as it Is, its safety is at least doubtful. 




Fig. 12. — Polluted spring in center of city street. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 



In general, it is not advisable to use springs for drinking 
water where their location normally exposes them to inflows of 
surface drainage. If other sources are not available, however, the 
spring should be carefully protected by impervious walls, which 
should be carried to sufficient height to keep out the surface water. 

Another source of frequent and objectionable though not 
necessarily dangerous contamination is the leaves, paper, dust 
and dirt blown into open springs by the w^nd. 



26 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

An example of danger from refuse of a more disgusting type 
is shown in Figure 12. Located in the middle of a well-traveled 
street, only a few inches above a gutter filled with paper and 
refuse, a part of which is sure to enter whenever a heavy rain 
occurs ; open to the rain which washes into it from the steps lead- 
ing down to it such dirt from the street as is brought in by the 
feet of the users; subject to the dipping of all sorts of more or 
less dirty buckets and utensils; receiving the underground drain- 
age and presumably more or less sewage from the buildings on the 
slopes above; and containing in its bottom several inches of de- 
caying paper and other refuse, this spring is on the whole one of 
the worst and most dangerously located sources of drinking water 
in the United States. 





Cesspool 


~r:::rrr- 






___ZijS Water ,« , 


•00 


— 


itive/ 




=S --^ 




- 


^\ Q- 


— ■ 




- 


J^^^^ 



Fig. 13. — Diagram showing manner in which springs may be polluted by 
subsurface drainage. 

In farming districts pollution by subsurface drainage from 
buildings on the slopes above the springs is not very common, al- 
though many springs are located back of barns, below hogpens 
and outbuildings. The placing of buildings above springs in- 
tended for use should always be avoided, even if the spring is 
several hundred feet away from the proposed site. (See Fig. 13.) 

Protection of Sink Holes. — It has already been pointed out 
that much of the water in limestones, the springs of which are 
frequently used for drinking and domestic purposes, enters the 
rock through open sink holes, into which in some places manure 
and other refuse has been dumped or sewage drained. Figure 8 
shows a small but continuous stream of sewage from a large 
college building discharging into a sink from which it finds its 



SPRINGS 27 

way to the underground water channels. Such practices are very 
dangerous. Cases of typhoid fever have resulted from drinking 
water from springs or wells which have become polluted by such 
matter entering the sinks; and, even where specific pollution is 
absent, undesirable slimes and rubbish often render the water 
highly objectionable. Instead of discharging refuse or sewage 
into sinks every care should be taken to protect them against its 
access. 

Piping of Springs. — Spring water should always be conveyed 
by iron pipes, as lead, which was formerly much used, is more or 
less readily dissolved by soft waters. Thousands of cases of lead 
poisoning resulted from such use in Europe and America before 
the cost of lead pipes became so high that they were largely 
abandoned. 

Where the water flows continually there is little danger from 
lead pipes, but if the flow is shut off when not in use, enough 
water should be drawn off each time to remove entirely that which 
has been standing in the pipes before taking any for domestic 
purposes or for the use of stock. 

Another precaution to be taken in piping springs is to lay the 
pipe well below the winter frost line in order that there may be 
no interruption of supply nor breaks due to freezing. The depth 
will vary greatly in different parts of the country, being as much 
as 6 feet in some of our northern states, while a few inches would 
be a sufficient depth in much of the South. 



CHAPTER IV. 
GROUND WATERS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE. 

Derivation of Ground Waters. — Practically all of the water 
in the soil and rocks is of meteoric origin; that is, it is de- 
rived from rainfall. In fact, many who have written on under- 
ground waters have stated that rainfall is the only source of supply. 
In reality, however, while rainfall probably contributes at least 
99 per cent of the total subterranean water, there are several 
other possible sources of such water. 

Of the small percentage of water derived from sources other 
than rainfall a small quantity Is " magmatic water," or that given 
off by molten rocks (magmas) at great depths; but, although con- 
siderable additions may be made locally to the underground 
water body In this way at points of Igneous activity, the ad- 
ditions to the supply In the earth's crust as a whole are insignifi- 
cant. 

It is also a well-known fact that along coasts of unusually 
porous materials such as certain coarse sands and coral or other 
porous limestones, especially when the rainfall is light, the sea 
water may penetrate through the pores of the rocks for a con- 
siderable distance Inland; but, the amount, although somewhat 
greater than the magmatic waters. Is very small. 

, The greater part of the non-meteoric waters appear to rep- 
resent sea waters Included in marine foundations that have been 
subsequently uplifted and converted into land. By far the larger 
portion of the sedimentary deposits, including sandstones, shales, 
limestones, etc., were originally laid down along the borders or 
beneath the surface of the ocean, and were, of course, originally 
saturated with salt water. It is probable that this water was 

often retained in the materials when they were uplifted and con- 

28 



GROUND WATERS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 29 

solidated into rocks, and is represented by the salt waters now 
found at great depths in the deep wells drilled for oil or gas, in 
which it is not uncommon, after passing through hundreds of 
feet of entirely dry rock, to suddenly encounter porous beds 
filled with salt water. 

Absorptive Capacity of Soils and Rocks. — The absorptive 
capacity of soils and the more porous rocks is enormous. As 
pointed out elsewhere 80 per cent of the rainfall is probably 
absorbed by the soils and rocks in the eastern United States and 
over 90 per cent in much of the West. The greater part of water 
so absorbed reappears at the surface as seepages and springs to 
form the streams or feed the ponds and lakes, usually within a 
few weeks or months of the time it fell upon the surface, although 
a part may join the deeper waters and reappear at the surface 
only after years or even centuries of imprisonment in the subter- 
ranean depths. 

The amount of water in several of the more common classes 
of rocks is discussed elsewhere, but a statement of the common 
porosities or the percentage of volume occupied by water when 
the soil or rock is saturated is given below. 

POROSITY OF SOILS AND ROCKS. 

Per cent. 

Soil and loam 55 

Clay . : 50 

Sand 30 

Chalk 50 

Sandstone 10 

Limestone and marble 4.5 

Slate and shale 4 

Granite i 

Quartzite .5 

The actual amount of water in the rocks will in most cases be 
slightly in excess of that indicated by the porosities, since very 
appreciable quantities also occur in the more or less open pas- 
sages such as joints, bedding planes, etc., while in limestones con- 
siderable amounts are often present in solution channels. 



30 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Total Water in the Ground. — The question of the amount of 
free water in the ground is of much interest to drillers and those 
seeking supplies. By free water is meant water in its ordinary 
liquid form. It does not include the chemically combined water 
of certain minerals and rocks, but is the water that occupies the 
pores, joints, solution passages or other openings. 

Several attempts have been made in both Europe and America 
to estimate the total amount of such water in the earth's crust, 
but with varying results. Delesse, in France, estimated the 
amount as sufficient to make an envelope of water 7500 feet in 
thickness. Slichter, in America, placed the amount as equivalent 
to a sheet 3000 to 3500 feet thick. Van Rise's estimate for the 
continental areas was a sheet equivalent to 226 feet, while 
Chamberlin and Salsbury estimated the amount as equivalent to 
a layer 1600 feet in depth. In all four cases, however, the esti- 
mates were based wholly on certain theoretical assumptions, 
several of which are now known to have been incorrect. An esti- 
mate by the writer, based on a wide study of the actual con- 
ditions in thousands of wells and scores of mines, combined with 
revised theoretical data, places the estimate at a little less than 
100 feet for the equivalent thickness of the ground water body in 
the earth's crust as a whole. It must be understood, however, 
that locally the amount is likely to be several times that stated, 
while elsewhere nothing but practically dry rocks will be pene- 
trated from the surface downward. 

Methods of Absorption. — The amount of water which enters 
the rocks or other materials by direct absorption varies greatly 
with the nature of the materials. The amount absorbed by the 
porous beds of sands and gravels that occur along stream valleys 
and along lake shores and the coast is very large. In some 
regions, as in portions of Cape Cod and Long Island, there are 
practically no surface streams, the water being permanently 
absorbed by the soil as soon as it falls and carried to the sea by 
underground drainage. 

Next to unconsolidated deposits the rocks which present the 



GROUND WATERS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 31 

conditions most favorable for direct absorption are the sand- 
stones and certain of the porous limestones. In the case of the 
granites, slates and other massive rocks the direct absorption is 
very slight. 

Besides the character of the material the amount of absorption 
depends very largely upon the inclination of the porous beds, the 
amount being much greater in the gently inclined beds than in 
those having steep dips. Thus in Figure 14 the two beds represented 
as outcropping on a level surface present widely different absorptive 




Fig. 14. — Relation of areas of outcrops to dip. 

conditions owing to the difference in area of their absorptive sur- 
faces, the exposed surface of the gently sloping bed {a' — b') being 
several times greater than that of the highly inclined bed {a — h). 

The quantity of water absorbed by rocks that are directly ex- 
posed to the falling rain is slight in comparison to that taken up 
by those covered with coatings of soil, loam or sand and gravel. 
Such materials take up the rain as would a sponge and keep the 
water in constant contact with the underlying rock surface, by 
which it is slowly absorbed, instead of running off as does the 
main portion of the precipitation falling on the bare ledges. 

Waters from Lakes and Streams. — One of the most common 
popular conceptions Is that ground waters are derived either 
from neighboring or from more remote lakes and streams. It is 
too well known to require more than the simple statement, how- 
ever, that the movement of such water Is normally toward and not 
away from the water bodies, the surfaces of which are below and 
not above the water table. It is only when there is some sudden 
rise of water in the lake or stream due to causes Independent of 
local rainfall that the level becomes higher than the adjacent 
water table and a landward movement takes place. These con- 
ditions are illustrated by Figure 15. Such movements occur 



32 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

temporarily during the flood period of rivers fed from mountain 
snows, etc., or in lakes supplied by such streams. Similar con- 
ditions exist where the torrents resulting from cloud-bursts tem- 
porarily flood certain parts of our great deserts. 



p_--- 



FlG. 15.-^ — Section illustrating conditions governing movement of water away from 
streams or lakes. N, Normal position of water table; F, position of water table 
during floods. 

Underground Waters and Mountains. — There is also a widely 
prevalent belief held by the inhabitants of lowlands that the 
ground waters, especially the deeper supplies, come from distant 
hills or mountains. Where true artesian conditions exist, such as 
described in Chapter VIII, there is a possibility that the waters 
may have originated in the manner indicated, being absorbed by 
the outcropping edges of the formations in the distant highlands. 
Such is the case of the deep waters of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, 
of those of the High Plains which stretch outward from the base 
of the Rockies to the east and of the Avaters of the innumerable 
basins among the western mountains and in the gravel and wash 
plains at their base. 

In the great majority of localities, however, no such relation 
of the ground water to mountains exists, even in the case of the 
deeper waters, since neither the geological formations nor the 
water bearing passages, such as joints, solution channels, bedding 
plains, etc., are continuous for any great distances. In fact, not 
only the shallow waters but the deep waters as well, are com- 
monly of relative local origin, being in most instances absorbed by 
the soil or rocks within a few miles of the well, or within 50 or 
100 miles at the outside. 

Underground Rivers. — " Underground rivers " often figure 
conspicuously In the popular mind, the conception being, in many 
cases, of vast streams flowing majestically through the earth far 
below the surface, much like the streams of the surface. Under- 



GROUND WATERS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 33 

ground streams are not entirely mythical, although few are of a 
size that would lift them to the dignity of rivers. Instances are 
numerous in limestone regions where streams several feet, or per- 
haps a rod or more in width, flow through underground channels, 
are joined by tributaries, plunge over ledges as waterfalls, and, in 
fact, behave much like surface streams. Such a stream is shown 
in Figure 5. 

Outside the limestone regions there is, in general, no moving 
ground water of a size to warrant the term river. The entire 
ground water body, as explained elsewhere, is in motion, but the 
movement is slow, often but a few inches a day, and the move- 
ment is that of a sheet of water rather than an underground 
" river. " 

In places, nevertheless, where porous materials lie between 
masses of unporous materials, as in the case of gravels lying be- 
tween the granite walls of valleys, etc., the motion is more rapid 
— perhaps several feet a day — and a sort of sluggish stream may 
slowly push its way through the soil. Nothing of the nature of 
the free flowing stream of the limestone regions exists, however. 

Underground Lakes. — There is little to warrant the common 
belief in the existence of " underground lakes." A few small 
pools are found in limestone caverns, but in the great majority of 
soils and rocks the water occurs only in the pores or occupies 
minute fissures or other parting plains. 

In the more porous materials, however, especially in sand and 
gravel, the volume of water is often very large and is given up 
freely to wells. This, and the fact that the water is commonly 
struck everywhere at about the same depth gives rise to the 
belief of an underground lake with a definite upper surface, a con- 
ception that is not far from the truth, except that the water ex- 
ists not as a free body but as a body filling the pores of the sand 
or gravel as it would a sponge. 

Temperature of Underground Waters. — In all wells there is a 
certain depth, which differs in different localities, at which there 
is practically no difference in the temperature of the water from 



34 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

f 
season to season or from year to year. This is known as the 
normal temperature of the water for a given region, and it agrees 
very closely with the mean annual temperature of the same 
locality. The depth of uniform temperature varies somewhat in 
different localities, but is commonly from 50 to 60 feet below the 
surface. The temperature varies from about 40 degrees or 45 
degrees in New England to about 65 degrees to 70 degrees in the 
Gulf States. 

Waters occurring nearer to the surface than the zone of uni- 
form temperature vary in temperature according to season, being 
warmer than the normal in summer months and colder in the 
winter months. The temperature of waters warmer than the nor- 
mal may also be due to the great depth from which the waters 
have come. 

The main cause of rise in temperature below the line of invari- 
able temperature is the internal heat of the earth. This internal 
heat increases rapidly downward, the rate of increase varying from 
I degree in 30 feet to i degree in 100 feet, the average increase being 
about I degree to 50 feet. The temperature of the water is very 
little affected in passing through the upper 50 feet of its course, 
hence its temperature is a fair indication of the depth from which 
it is derived. 

Besides the internal heat of the earth the heat of igneous 
masses below the surface of the earth has been thought to give 
rise to the hot springs of many localities, and in some instances 
the heat evolved by the chemical decay of rocks has been cited 
to explain the temperature of hot springs. 



CHAPTER V. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

Classes of Rocks. — All known rocks contain more or less 
water, and though many of them will not yield it in useful quan- 
tities to wells all must be considered in a discussion of water- 
bearing formations. Many rocks are familiar to everyone, at 
least by name; others are less widely known and may be re- 
stricted to very small areas. The classes of rocks commonly 
recognized and the definitions of the simpler varieties are given 
below for the benefit of those not familiar with the terms in 

use. 

In a simple classification rocks may be grouped into three 
divisions: (i) sedimentary, (2) igneous and (3) metamorphic. 

Sedimentary rocks are formed either of fragments worn from 
older rocks by the action of rain, wind, frost, etc., and carried 
by water, wind or glaciers until deposited as beds of clay, sand, 
gravel, marl, loess, etc. ; or of the remains of corals or of shellfish, 
such as oysters and clams. When first deposited the materials 
are loose and unconsolidated, but gradually they become hardened 
and cemented together, especially when covered by later beds, 
and eventually form solid rocks. These fragments or grains are 
commonly rounded, and their form may therefore help to dis- 
tinguish them from igneous rocks, which may have corners or 
angles or may include angular crystals. 

Igneous rocks may have come from the earth's interior in a 
molten state and have been forced into or through the rocks 
above them or may have overflowed as lava beds at the surface. 
They are generally made up of or at least include angular crys- 
tals, which may be recognized by their glistening faces, a feature 
that is not usually possessed by sedimentary rocks. Many of 

. 35 



36 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

them are banded and most of them are irregular in mass and oc- 
currence; locally they may contain vividly colored patches and 
bands. 

Sedimentary and igneous rocks in many places have been sub- 
jected to heat and pressure after their deposition. This action 
may have further hardened them or have so greatly changed them 
that their original character can scarcely be determined. Rocks 
thus changed are known as metamorphic rocks. Mica schist and 
marble are typical examples. As a rule they exhibit a bedded or 
banded structure. 

Rocks of all of these types occur the world over, and those of 
one locality may be indistinguishable from those of another. 
Notwithstanding these similarities, they may have been formed 
under very different conditions and at periods thousands or even 
millions of years apart. Resemblances between rocks do not, 
therefore, mean that they were formed at the same time or will 
yield the same products, such as coal or oil or water. 

Simple definitions of the more common rocks are given below. 
Complete descriptions and definitions of rarer varieties may be 
found in any text-book on geology. 

Unconsolidated Sedimentary Deposits. — Gravel, sand and 
clay are made up respectively of pebbles, sand grains and fine 
silts worn from older rocks and redeposited in their present form. 

Alluvium is a general term for gravels, sands and clays, or 
mixtures of these that have been deposited by streams. 

Chalk is a soft white earthy form of limestone. 

Marl is a clay with much intermingled calcareous material. 

Till is a heterogeneous mixture of clay, sand, pebbles and 
boulders deposited by glaciers. 

Hardpan is a general term which may be applied to any bed 
which is considerably harder than those with which it is asso- 
ciated. It is often applied to till, to tough clays or to partly 
cemented sand or clay beds. 

Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks. — Conglomerate is a con- 
solidated gravel. 



WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS 37 

Sandstone is a consolidated sand. It is said to be massive if 
there are few bedding planes, and shaly if it splits into plates. 

Quartzite is a sandstone in which the spaces between the 
grains have been filled with a hard cement (silica), forming an ex- 
cessively hard rock. 

Shale is consolidated clay; a soft, fine-grained rock which 
tends to split into thin plates. It is sometimes improperly called 
soapstone. 

Limestone is composed mainly of carbonate of lime, but often 
contains sand and other impurities, and may be very hard. Not 
infrequently it contains many shells or is made up entirely of 
them. It can be most readily recognized by the bubbling which 
takes place when it is touched with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. 
In varieties high in magnesia and in magnesium carbonate 
(dolomite), hot, strong muriatic acid is necessary to produce this 
action. 

Tuff is any sedimentary rock that is made up entirely or 
almost entirely of fresh fragments of volcanic rocks. 

Concretions are hard, lumplike masses within the rock. 
They should not be confounded with real boulders, from which, 
as a rule, they may readily be distinguished, because they consist 
of nearly the same material as that in which they are embedded. 

Igneous Rocks. — Granite is a wholly crystalline rock, com- 
posed of quartz, feldspar and other light-colored minerals. 

Diorite, gabbro and diabase are crystalline rocks similar to 
granite, but with less quartz and with dark-colored feldspars. 

Volcanic rocks, lavas, etc., are rocks that have been emitted 
in a molten state from volcanoes. 

Trap is a widely distributed, compact, very dark-colored 
variety of volcanic rock. Technically it is a basalt or diabase, 
and these terms are in common use. 

Metamorphic and Crystalline Rocks. — Slate is like shale, but 
harder; it splits into thin plates which may or may not coincide 
with the bedding. The tendency to split is not often recognized 
in drilling. Roofing slate is a familiar example. 



38 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Marble Is a crystalline limestone, and gives the same reaction 
with acid as limestone, marl and chalk. 

True soapstone Is a soft, even-grained, greasy-feeling rock com- 
posed of the mineral talc, but the term is Incorrectly applied to 
any soft, greasy-feeling rock, such as soft shale. 

Schist is a more or less crystalline rock which has a laminated 
structure, due to the fiat crystals of mica or other minerals of 
which It Is composed. 

Gneiss is similar to granite in composition, but has a less per- 
fect crystalline structure and a banded structure due to the linear 
arrangement of its crystals. 

Fossils. — In many sedimentary rocks remains of animals and 
plants are found. These generally consist of portions or im- 
pressions of shells, bones or leaves, and are known as fossils. 
A bed may be recognized and determined by such remains, which 
are therefore of great importance in geologic work. In the oldest 
rocks only low organisms, such as shellfish, are found, but in later 
rocks, fishes, reptiles and mammals progressively appear, while 
vegetation shows a corresponding change of Its predominant types 
from microscopic forms to the forest trees of to-day. 

Formations. — A rock bed or a succession of beds that are 
uniform In character throughout a considerable area Is termed a 
formation and is given a geographic name derived from some place 
or feature In the area where it typically occurs, such as Trenton 
limestone. The correct Identification of formations Is very im- 
portant in underground-water studies, as by this means the 
structure and position of water-bearing beds Is worked out. 

Structures of Rocks. — When deposited, sedimentary beds are 
nearly horizontal, but they may be subsequently thrown into in- 
clined positions, or bent Into arches or troughs, or broken and 
displaced. It is rather unusual, In fact, to find In the Interior of 
the continents any sedimentary beds which have not been tilted, 
folded or otherwise disturbed, at least slightly. . Some of the 
terms used to designate the structures that result from these dis- 
turbances are as follows: 



WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS 39 

An anticline is the arched part of a rock fold. 

A syncline is the trough of a rock fold. 

A fault is a rock fracture the sides of which have been dis- 
placed from their original position with reference to one another. 

The dip of a bed is the angle by which it deviates from the 
horizontal plane. 

Strike is the compass direction of the intersection of an in- 
clined bed with a horizontal surface. 

A joint is a plane of fracture or crack in a rock the sides of 
which have not been materially displaced with reference to one 
another. 

Cleavage planes are minor planes traversing a rock, as a rule 
in one direction, and in many rocks are simply lines along which 
the rock tends to split rather than actual fractures. They are 
commonly due to the action of pressure on compact rocks. 

Foliation and schistosity are planes of easy splitting, due to 
the arrangement of the minerals of the rock with their elongated 
directions parallel with one another. 



CHAPTER VI. 

SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES. 

The water in rocks — and every rock contains at least a trace 
— either occupies perceptible cavities in the rock or occurs within 
the minute pores. The water in the pores is given up readily 
only by the coarser rocks, such as sandstones, the fine-grained 
rocks yielding very little of such water when penetrated by the 
drill. Water found in these rocks usually comes from the joint, 
fault or foliation planes. The conditions of the occurrence of 
water in various rocks differ widely. 

Waters of Sands and Gravels. — Sands and gravels are very 
porous. Thirty per cent of the volume of some sand or gravel 
deposits are made up of free space between the grains. In such 
material the whole mass below ground-water level is saturated, 
and when penetrated by wells yields copious supplies. The 
waters of such deposits are, as a rule, of good quality, but some 
are mineralized, having dissolved material from the more soluble 
fragments and particles that constitute the deposits. 

The cheapest and best method of obtaining small supplies of 
water from sands and fine gravels is by driven wells, which can be 
sunk quickly and at slight cost. It is difficult, however, to ex- 
clude very fine sand or quicksand from pipes, quicksand frequently 
penetrating the well and clogging the pipe or ruining the pump. 
Because of the readiness with which sands and gravels yield their 
water, wells sunk close together in such deposits may affect one 
another, the well that draws from the sand at the lowest level tak- 
ing the water from the higher wells. The readiness of movement 
of the water also causes important fluctuations of the water in the 
ground, the level often rising and falling rapidly with the begin- 
ning and cessation of rain. To obtain permanent supplies, wells 

40 



SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES 



41 



should penetrate to a level below that of the ground-water sur- 
face in the driest seasons. (See Fig. 16.) 



Warer 


level 


In ordinary years 


Water 


le ve 1 


i n d ry ye a rs 









Fig. 16. — Diagram showing relation between depth and permanence of wells. — A, 
Well sunk to ordinary water level, but failing at times of drought; B, well sunk to 
level of water in dry years and never failing. 

Waters of Clays. — Clay usually contains large quantities of 
water, but its pore spaces are so fine or small that water soaks into 
it or out of it so slowly that it is impervious in the sense that little 
or none of that which it contains can be utilized as a source of 
supply. Considerable amounts are frequently reported in clays, 
but they usually come from more or less sandy layers. In some 
places sand that approaches clay in fineness and that is some- 
times mistaken for clay yields considerable amounts of water. 




Fig. 17. — Diagram showing action of clays or shales in confining water in sand or 

sandstone. 

Clay is of the greatest importance, however, not as a water bearer, 
but as a confining layer which prevents the water from escaping 
(see Fig. 17), or as a layer collecting the water from overlying 
porous beds and bringing it to the surface. 

When, because of the absence of other sources, it is necessary 
to obtain supplies from clay, a well sunk should be of as large 
diameter as possible and should be continued far enough beneath 
the point at which water is obtained to insure ample storage 
capacity. (See Fig. 18.) Dug wells are usually most satisfactory 
where the clay is near the surface, but such wells should be care- 
fully covered and guarded from all sources of pollution 

Waters of Tills. — Till is a heterogeneous mixture of clay, 



42 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



level 



Fig. 1 8. — Relative size and storage ca- 
pacity of dug and drilled wells. 



sand, gravel and boulders, deposited by glaciers. In texture it 
varies from porous to impervious, according to whether sand or 
clay predominates. It is, as a rule, not definitely bedded. The 
water that it contains generally occurs in small more or less tubular 
channels a few inches in diameter, but here and there is distributed 
through interstratified sandy beds. 

In the aggregate, till yields a large amount of water, being the 
prevailing source of supply in the rural districts at a great number 
of points throughout the northern portion of the country. Be- 
cause of the occurrence of the 
water in definite channels, how- 
ever, the success of wells in 
till varies greatly. In general, 
wells of large diameter give the 
best success. Figure i8 repre- 
sents two wells of the same 
depth, one dug and one bored. It will be seen that in the dug 
well not only is a larger amount of material encountered in cross 
section, but the area of surface from which water can enter is 
many times greater than in the bored well. The open well is 
also of larger storage capacity, and can be employed to utilize 
small supplies — supplies that would be insufficient 
to furnish enough water to a bored well. 

Waters of Sandstones, Conglomerates and 
Quartzites. — Sandstone is, on the whole, the best 
water bearer of the solid rocks. Under the most 
favorable conditions sandstone is saturated through- 
out its extent below the regular ground- water level, 
and wherever it is struck by the drill within these 
limits (see Fig. 19) it yields water freely, as a rule, 
although some of the finer-grained sandstones yield 
it less readily. In quality the water in sandstones 
is, as a rule, better than that in any other material except sand 
and gravel. Drilled wells are used to recover water from sand- 
stone, except where it is very near the surface. 




Fig. 19. — Ar- 
rangement of 
grains in sands 
and sandstones 
with interven- 
ing pores open 
and capable of 
holding water. 



SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES 



43 




Fig. 20. — Grains 
in sands and 
sandstones with 
intervening 
pores filled with 
mineral matter 
preventing the 
absorption of 
water. 



Some conglomerates furnish considerable water, although, as 
a rule, the absorptive power of conglomerates is not so great 
as that of sandstones, and they are much less frequently en- 
countered. 

Quartzite is a sandstone in which the spaces between the 
grains have been filled by hard siliceous matter. (See Fig. 20.) 
Because of the filling of the pores by this material 
there Is relatively little chance for the water to 
enter, and the rocks are not commonly an import- 
ant source of supply. Such water as they yield is 
mainly from joints. 

Waters of Slates. — Slate, like clay, is a poor 
water bearer but may yield water from crevices or 
along bedding joint and cleavage planes. Its most 
important use, with reference to water supply, is 
as a confining layer to prevent the escape of water 
from porous sandstones which may be Interbedded 
with It. The waters In slate are reached by deep wells and are 
generally uncontamlnated but are not uncommonly mineralized. 

Waters of Limestones. — Waters occur In limestone mainly In 
open channels, caverns, etc., dissolved in the rock by the water 
itself. The water originally probably followed joint or bedding 

planes which were gradu- 
ally enlarged by solution 
into the caverns that now 
exist. 

The occurrence of cav- 
erns and passages within 
the limestone Is very ir- 
regular, and their location 
can seldom be predicted. 
Most deep wells which 
are drilled in limestone regions, however, encounter one or more 
such passages at a relatively slight distance below the surface. 
Wells in limestone, even where only a few feet apart, may never- 




FlG. 21. 



Difference in conditions of adjacent 
wells in limestone. 



44 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



theless obtain very different results, as a difference of a foot or 
two may mean the missing of a certain channel, as indicated in 
Fig. 21. The waters in limestone are generally hard but are not 
commonly otherwise mineralized. 

Waters of Granites, Gneisses and Schists. — Granites and 
gneisses are very dense and possess very small pore spaces, and 
most of these rocks hold very little water. In schists, however, 
considerable water often penetrates along the foliation planes and 

is held by the rock, 
but such water is 
given up very slowly 
and is not important 
as a source of supply. 
It is along the 
joints in these rocks 
that the largest sup- 
plies are obtained. 
(See Fig. 22.) These 
joints are most com- 
mon near the surface 
and diminish in num- 
ber and in definiteness as the depth increases. For this reason 
the water supplies from such rocks, if obtained at all, are usually 
found within 200 or 300 feet of the surface. It is generally use- 
less to go deeper than 500 feet for waters in these crystalline 
rocks, although in some places, as at Atlanta, Ga., water is said 
to have been obtained at depths as great as 1600 feet. 

Safety of Rock Waters. — The safety of the water supplies 
used for drinking purposes when near any source of pollution, de- 
pends principally upon the character of the openings through 
which the water passes, and this in turn depends on the nature of 
the materials in which the water occurs or through which it has 
passed. 

In passing downward through sand surface waters are sub- 
jected to natural filtration, especially in the finer varieties, and 




Fig. 22. — Wells in jointed rocks. 



SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES 45 

the substances with which they may have originally been polluted 
are frequently removed, at least in part. In coarser sands and 
in gravel the water passes downward more rapidly, the conditions 
are less favorable for filtration, and the water may remain polluted. 
In general, however, waters from sands and gravels, if taken from 
a considerable distance below the surface, are safe to use. 

The waters of clays, because of the fineness of the material, 
come into contact with relatively large amounts of mineral matter 
and frequently become mineralized, lime and salt being the most 
common substances dissolved; as a rule, however, owing to the 
filtration of the waters through the exceedingly fine material and 
the slowness with which polluting matter progresses and the slight 
distance to which it reaches in such material, they are free from 
contamination. 

The water of till is generally uncontaminated because of the 
natural filtration due to its slow downward penetration through 



Cesspool 








■^y?-: " _ 


■-' „ ■ 




.-^,,WeII 


;-o-.'-'.-"'.to.- ' 
:-:-\-«:;-y&X-:v'?:::ciV.--- 




siJg^^Bfci 



Fig. 23. — Diagram showing pollution in till. 

the clay and sand of which the till is largely composed. In some 
places, however, springs have formed more or less definite tubular 
channels through the material, and if such a channel leads from a 
cesspool or similar source of pollution the water becomes highly 
charged with matter dangerous to the health. Once contaminated 
it is likely to continue so for long distances, as little natural filtra- 
tion takes place, because of the nature of the channel. (See 
Fig. 23.) The water from till should be thoroughly tested by a 
bacteriologist if there seems any likelihood of contamination. 

The waters in sandstones and conglomerates are very rarely 
polluted, owing in the more porous varieties to the natural fil- 
tration and in the compact varieties to the difficulty with which 



46 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



contaminated waters penetrate them. In quartzitic rock, how- 
ever, joint fractures may admit both water and polluting mate- 
rials from the surface. 

Like the waters of clays and for the same reasons, the waters 
of slates and shales suffer very little pollution. 

In the vicinity of buildings or settlements the waters of lime- 
stone are frequently contaminated and unfit for use. This is not 
because of the amount of lime dissolved, but because of the fact 
that the water falling on the surface as rain often plunges directly 
through basins or sinks into the underground channels instead of 
slowly filtering downward through the soil and into the rock, as 
in most other materials. This water carries with it the impurities 
washed or otherwise brought to the sink and bears them along 
through underground passages to distant points. (See Figs. 8 
and 24.) It is a common practice to dump manure, sewage and 



Sink 



Sink 




Fig. 24. — Limestone passage connected with sinks. 



other refuse into these sinks, regardless of the fact that it will 
eventually enter the underground water body. Fortunately, in 
the United States many limestone regions are thinly inhabited, so 
the danger is not perhaps so widespread here as elsewhere. When 
springs which have been guarded from surface wash become 
muddy after a rain it is safe to assume that surface impurities 
have had access to the ground water through sinks or otherwise, 
and such waters should be avoided. 

The joints in granitic rocks generally occur in complex systems 
of intersecting planes, and it is possible for polluted water start- 
ing very near the mouth of the well to pass in a zigzag course 
downward along the joints, finally reaching the well at a depth of 
many hundred feet (Fig. 22) ; such was the case in a well at 



SOURCES AND SAFETY OF UNDERGROUND SUPPLIES 47 

Atlanta, Ga., which finally had to be abandoned. For this reason 
wells drilled in broken and jointed igneous rocks in cities and 
other thickly populated regions are liable to pollution. Waters 
from such wells, if they are to be used for drinking, should be 
tested occasionally to determine whether they are polluted or 
not. 



CHAPTER VII. 
LOCATION AND MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 

Fallacy of the Divining Rod. — Numerous mechanical devices 
have been proposed for detecting the presence of underground 
water, ranging in complexity from the simple forked branch of 
witch-hazel, peach or other wood, to more or less elaborate me- 
chanical or electric contrivances. Many of the operators of these 
devices, especially those who use the home-cut forked branch, 
are entirely honest in the belief that the working of the rod is 
influenced by agencies — usually regarded as electric currents 
following underground streams of water — that are entirely inde- 
pendent of their own bodies, and many uneducated people have 
implicit faith in their ability to locate underground water in this 
way. 

Rods of this type have been carefully tested by the writer, 
who early found that at times they worked entirely independently 
of his will. This, by most people would be regarded as conclu- 
sive evidence of their efficacy, and if water was not found beneath 
the spot where the rod turned down it would always be because 
one "didn't go deep enough." 

As a matter of fact, though the rod turned down in the hands 
of the writer without any volition on his part, careful and con- 
tinued experiment showed the action to be entirely unrelated to 
the presence or absence of water, but due rather to slight and, 
until watched for, unsuspected muscular movements such as 
leaning forward in ascending a grade or other natural changes of 
the position of the body resulting from unconscious adjustments 
of poise to suit the irregularities of the surface on which he was 
walking, or to other causes, the effects of which were communi- 
cated through the arms, wrists and hands to the rod. A slight 

48 



LOCATION AND MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 49 

and often unconscious tightening of grip on the rod always sent 
the tip downward at once, and the tighter one held the more it 
bent. 

It was soon shown, however, that there were no movements of 
the rod arising from causes outside of the body and it was obvious 
that the view held by other men of science is correct — that the 
operation of the " divining rod " is generally due to unconscious 
movements of the body or of the muscles of the hand. The ex- 
periments made show that these movements, being largely of a 
nervous nature, happen most frequently at places where the 
operator's experience has led him to believe that water may be 
found. 

The uselessness of the divining rod is indicated by the fact 
that it may be worked at will by the operator, that he fails to de- 
tect strong water currents in channels that afford no surface in- 
dications of water, that his locations In limestone regions where 
water flows in well-defined channels under conditions that should 
be especially favorable to the working of the rod are usually no 
better than mere guesses, and that two "divining rod experts" 
going over the same tract commonly locate the supposed under- 
ground "streams" at entirely different points. 

In fact, the operators of the divining rod are successful only in 
regions in which ground water occurs In a definite sheet in porous 
material or in more or less clayey deposits, such as pebbly clay 
or till. In such regions few failures can occur, for wells can get 
water almost anywhere. Ground water occurs under certain 
definite conditions, and just as surface streams may be expected 
wherever there is a valley, so ground water may be found where 
certain rocks and conditions exist. No appliance, either me- 
chanical or electrical, has yet been devised that will detect water 
in places where plain common sense will not show its presence 
just as well. The only advantage of employing a " water witch," 
as the operator of the divining rod is sometimes called, is that 
crudely skilled services are thus occasionally obtained, since the 
men so employed, if endowed with any natural shrewdness, 



50 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

become through their experience in locating wells better observers 
of the occurrence and movements of ground water than the aver- 
age person. 

It is to be noted that notwithstanding the pretensions of 
divining-rod men, especially the inventors of the more complicated 
appliances, they have not been able to prove their claims to the 
satisfaction of the government, and all applications for patents 
are denied by the Patent Office. 

Basis of Scientific Location of Underground Waters. — The 
only scientific basis at present known for locating underground 
supplies is a knowledge of the laws of occurrence and movements 
of the ground-water body, for on these factors depend the quantity, 
quality and safety of the supply. The occurrence and quality 
of the water in rocks of different kinds has been already discussed 
in Chapter \T. It remains to consider briefly the nature of the 
movements of the ground-water body. 

The Water-table. — Proceeding downward from the surface in 
porous or semi-porous materials, such as those in which most 
open wells are located, a level is soon reached below which the 
ground is saturated with water (at least down to the first im- 
pervious stratum). This water-body, or ground water as it is 
called, has a definite upper surface, known as the water-table. 
This is not, like its surface counterpart, a level surface, but slopes 
gently in \'arious directions, conforming with the broader surface 
irregularities. 

While the water-table is typically developed only in the 
porous soils and rocks, it commonly exists, even in the dense 
rocks like granite, as a more or less definite, though irregular, 
surface, since the joints and other planes which subdivide the 
rock usuall}^ communicate with one another so that the water 
level stands at a fairly uniform height. 

The surface of the water-table, though conforming in a general 
way with the surface contour, is almost always comparatively 
fiat, its slope being only a fraction of that of the overlying surface. 
This is brought out by Figure 25, which shows the water-table 



LOCATION AND MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 51 

lying far below the ground beneath hilltops while cutting the 
surface in the valleys, giving rise to a line of springs at about the 
level of the surface streams. 

The water-table is flattest in porous materials such as sands 
and gravels and presents the steepest slopes in clays, often fol- 



FiG. 25. — Section showing relation of water-table to surface irregularities (Slichter.) 

lowing, in the latter type of materials, the surface contour with 
but slight variation. 

It follows from the above that in seeking to locate water the 
topography and geology should be carefully considered. Supplies 
are to be expected at shallower depths beneath depressions than 
beneath the higher lands, and in general will be found nearer the 
surface in clays and similar materials than in sands or gravels. 
The waters of the clays, however, are likely to be insufficient for 
permanent supplies. 

Movements of Ground Waters. — The motion of the ground 
water is In the direction of steepest slope of the water-table, as 
Illustrated in Figure 26, and as this roughly coincides with the sur- 
face slope It follows that the direction of motion of the ground 
water generally approximates that of the surface drainage. 

From the law of movement thus outlined It appears that In 
porous materials the points most favorable for obtaining water are 
where the water movements converge. This is in the valleys or 
other depressions, where the water, as shown In the preceding 
section. Is also nearest the surface. 

Movements of Shallow Rock Waters. — The movements of 
rock waters, since the movement is largely controlled by the 



52 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 




Fig. 26. — Map showing position of water-table by contours (continuous lines), lines 
of motion of ground water (arrows) and surface streams. (Slichter.) 

nature of the water-bearing passages, are far more irregular than 
those in porous materials, in which motion is possible in any 
direction. In granites, the water is found mainly in joints and 
can move only in the direction in which the joint planes extend. 
In shales, it is the cleavage planes that furnish the chief passages 
for water, and, as these all extend in one direction, the water can 
commonly move only in one way. In sandstones, water may 
move in any direction that the bed extends. In limestones, solu- 
tion channels carry practically the whole of the available water, 
and, notwithstanding their great irregularity, they commonly 
have fairly definite trends — from the highlands towards the 
valleys. 

Although the specific direction of movement of the rock 
waters is controlled by the structural features of the rocks the 
general movement of the shallower supplies, or those lying above 
the level of the drainage in the valleys, is very similar to that of 
the ordinary ground water, the flow trending towards the adjacent 
valleys in almost every case. It is at such points that supplies 
will be most easily reached by wells. 



LOCATION AND MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS 53 

Movements and Depth of Deep Seated Waters. — The deep 
seated waters, or those reached by the deep drilled wells, do not 
follow the simple laws governing the movements of the ground 
waters. Although moving from higher to lower points and in 
the general direction of the broader surface slopes, they are usually 
independent of local topography and of irregularities in the im- 
mediately overlying water-table. They are commonly confined 
under pressure in channels, joints or other passages in the denser 
rocks, or in porous beds between impervious strata, and have 
often been transmitted through the rock from distant sources. 

The depth at which the water will be encountered depends 
upon the slope or dip of the bed or passage in which it occurs. 
Other things being equal, the depth will be least beneath the val- 
leys and greatest beneath the uplands. If the slope of the con- 
fining bed is uniform, the depth will decrease in the direction of 
the outcrop, providing the surface does not rise more rapidly than 
the water-bearing bed. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



ARTESIAN FLOWS. 

Requisites of Artesian Flows. — A flowing well may be 
obtained at any point where water is confined in the earth under 
sufficient pressure to lift it to the surface, whether this be in 
drift, in sandstone, in Hmestone or in granite, or whether the 
water occupies the pores of the rocks or occurs in bedding planes, 
joints, cleavage partings or in open solution passages. 

The first essential is a reservoir, which, in the scientific sense, 
is any opening or series of openings in soils or rocks capable of 




Fig. 27. — Section of an artesian basin. A, porous stratum; B, C, impervious beds 
below and above A, acting as confining strata; F, height of water level in porous 
bed A, or, in other words, height in reservoir or fountain head; D, E, flowing wells 
springing from the porous water-filled bed A. (Chamberlin.) 

holding water. This must be filled with water, the escape of 
which — the second essential — is prevented by an overlying im- 
pervious bed or in some one of a dozen different ways. The third 
essential is an adequate source of pressure. Usually this pressure 




Fig. 28. — Section showing transition from porous to impervious bed. A, an open por- 
ous bed inclosed between impervious beds B and C and grading into dense non- 
water-bearing bed at E; F, original head; D, flowing well. (Chamberlin.) 

results from the fact that the catchment area of the water-bearing 
reservoir is higher than the point at which it is tapped by the well. 
Three of the simplest and most common artesian systems are 
illustrated by Figures 17 (p. 41), 27 and 28. 

54 



ARTESIAN FLOWS 



55 



Flowing water is not confined to wells penetrating definite 
porous beds such as are shown in the figures. Bedding planes 
(Fig. 4) in limestones and other rocks, joint planes in crystalline 
rocks (Fig. 29), solution passages in limestone (Fig. 30), porous 
(vesicular) layers of traps (Fig. 31), etc., all afford artesian flows 
under favorable conditions. 




Fig. 29. — Section illustrating artesian conditions in jointed crystalline rocks without 
surface covering. A, C, flowing wells fed by joints; B, intermediate well between 
A and C of greater depth, but with no water; D, deep well not encountering joints; 
E, pump well adjacent to D, obtaining water at shallow depths; 5, dry hole ad- 
jacent to a spring, showing why wells near springs may fail to obtain water. 




Fig. 30. — Section illustrating conditions of flow from solution passages in limestone. 
A, Brecciated zone (due to caving of roof) serving as confining agent to waters 
reached by well i ; B, silt deposit filling passage and acting as confining agent to 
waters reached by well 2 ; C, surface debris clogging channel and confining waters 
reached by well 3; D, pinching out of solution crevice resulting in confinement of 
waters reached by well 4. 

Flows from Sands and Sandstones. — It is the sands and sand- 
stones that give rise to our great artesian systems. Often of great 
thickness and extending without interruption for hundreds and 
even thousands of miles, they are frequently saturated with 
water under sufficient head to lift itself to the surface at scores of 
points. It is such beds that give rise to the numberless flowing 
wells along the river valleys, lowlands and shores of the Atlantic 
Coastal Plain, to the great flows from the Dakota and other sand- 
stones in portions of the High Plains along the east flanks of the 
Rockies, and to flows in numerous other areas of less extent. 



56 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

The beds, being continuous, furnish water at practically every 
point encountered, and since the head is usually known, the ob- 
taining of flows is usually simply a question of elevation of the 
surface and success or failure may be predicted in advance. 

Flows from Glacial Materials. — Consisting largely of sands 
and gravels, the glacial materials, next to the great sand and 
sandstone beds, are naturally the most common source of flowing 
wells. It is rare, however, to find individual beds extending for 
any great distances, and the areas of flowing wells are, therefore, 
usually of no great extent. What the areas lack in extent, how- 
ever, is often largely made up in number, for in regions of thick 
drift, like Michigan, there are literally hundreds of artesian 
basins. In fact, throughout much of the Lower Peninsular, al- 
most every valley or other depression of any magnitude yields 
flows at depths commonly from 50 to 150 feet. Though not so 
numerous in other parts of the country, local artesian basins 
abound in the drift at many points. Unlike the case of the sand- 
stones, in which the head of the water depends on the elevation 
of distant outcrops, the head of the waters of the drift usually 
depends on the altitude of closely adjacent elevations, often 
within a mile or two of the artesian basin, and, since the differ- 
ences of altitude are usually relatively slight, the pressures of 
the drift waters are not usually high. 

Flows from. Limestones. — Limestones do not, as a rule, afford 
many flowing wells. When near the surface, the water, because 
of the solubility of the rock, generally finds easy escape, seldom 
remaining confined under pressure. When below drainage level, 
however, especially where the limestone lies between shales or 
other impervious beds, artesian flows are not uncommon. The 
flows in the vicinity of Cincinnati, on the Peninsula of Florida 
and in portions of Texas are good examples of artesian waters of 
this type. The volumes are often large. 

Flows from Granites. — Granites, gneisses and other similar 
crystalline rocks, although seldom regarded as a source of artesian 
waters, nevertheless yield flowing wells at many points where the 



ARTESIAN FLOWS 57 

escape of the water, which has passed downward through the joints 
from some elevated source, is prevented from escaping by over- 
lying clays or other obstructions to circulation. Several such wells 
are found at Portsmouth, N.H., and at other points in the gran- 
ite areas of New England and the Piedmont plateau of the South, 
and are occasionally found in the crystalline areas of the West. 

The flows from granite are generally small, for the reason that 
the openings along the joint planes in rocks of this type are very 
small, being usually under j^-q of an inch in width, although when 
several such passages are intersected by a single well the volume 
is occasionally higher, amounting sometimes to from 20 to 50 
gallons a minute. 

Flows from Traps and Lavas. — Certain traps, like those of 
the Connecticut valley, are often quite porous in their upper por- 

A 




Fig. 31. — Section illustrating conditions of flow from vesicular trap. A, Vesicular 

zone feeding well I. 

tions, and, when overlain by impervious retaining beds, not in- 
frequently give rise to flowing wells. In the thicker lavas, such 
as those covering large portions of eastern Washington and Oregon, 
certain strata are sometimes almost as porous as sandstones and 
afford large volumes of water to wells, many of which flow. 

Location of Flowing Wells. — In order that water may have 
sufficient head to flow out upon the surface, it must be confined 
under some impervious or relatively impervious clay or other bed. 
This effectually shuts out pollution from the overlying material, 
and any contamination that reaches the well must be transmitted 
laterally for relatively long distances. As pollution rarely ex- 
tends through the ground to any great lateral distance from its 
source, it follows that artesian waters are almost never polluted. 

In artesian wells, the water, being under greater head than that 



58 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



in the surrounding materials, will pass outward through any leak 
that may develop rather than admit the water of lower head to 
the well. Suction, such as is developed in the Richards apparatus 
in laboratories, which might be conceived of as drawing in outside 
water through openings in the casings, can not take place with the 
relatively low velocities of the water in the ordinary artesian 
wells. Even in a well in which the water has a very high velocity, 
the suction is so slight in proportion to the immense volume dis- 
charged that it may usually be neglected. 

Because of the fact that there is little likelihood of pollution 
of a flowing well, the exact situation is, from the sanitary stand- 
point, of little consequence, and the well may generally be 
located at the point that is most convenient. Since flows are 
dependent upon the head of the confined water, the pressure of 
which is generally very moderate, it follows that the well should 
be located at the lowest point possible. A difference of altitude 
of a few feet, or even a few inches, may decide whether or not a 
flow will be secured. 

Relation of Depth to Flows. — There is a general belief that 
the head of underground waters, and therefore the probability of 



-B J? 




Fig. 32. — Artesian system showing progressively higher outcrop of deeper beds. 

securing flows, increases with depth. In many instances, as 
under the conditions shown in Figure 32, there is some foundation 
for this assumption, since the deeper beds not infrequently out- 




FiG. 33. — Artesian system showing progressively lower outcrop of deeper beds. 

crop at successively higher lands than the shallower beds. In 
other instances the belief is not only without foundation, but the 
reverse conditions exist, as shown by Figure 33. 



CHAPTER IX. 
WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Principal Water Provinces. — There are wide differences in 
the underground water conditions in the different parts of the 
United States. These are due, in a large measure, to the diversi- 
fied character of the water-bearing materials and to the variations 
in geologic structure. 

An area throughout which the underground water conditions 
are essentially similar or, more especially, in which the occurrence 
of ground waters is governed by the presence of some particular 
water-bearing bed or of some geological structure favorable to the 
accumulation of ground waters, is known as a ground water 
province. 

There are about a dozen great ground water provinces in the 
United States; the Drift Province, the Weathered Rock Province, 
the Atlantic Coast or Coastal Plain Province, the Piedmont 
Province, the Appalachian Mountain Province, the Mississippi 
Basin Province, the High Plain Province, the Rocky Mountain 
Province, the Great Basin Province and the Pacific Province. 
Several of the major provinces may be subdivided with a number 
of smaller provinces, and the bounds of one often merge into 
those of another. Two of them, the Drift and the Weathered Rock 
provinces, are superficial and overlie the more fundamental, 
though no more important, provinces based on the underlying 
geology. 

Area of Glacial Drift. — This area is bounded on the south by 
a line which, starting at Nantucket, passes through Martha's Vine- 
yard, Long Island, across New Jersey, northwestward across 
Pennsylvania into New York, then southwestward across Pennsyl- 
vania and Ohio to the vicinity of Cincinnati, where it crosses the 

59 



6o DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

river for a short distance into Kentucky, thence westward across 
southern Indiana, IHinois and central Missouri, to a point be- 
yond Kansas City, where it bends northward across Kansas and 
the Dakotas and thence westward along an irregular line a little 
south of the international boundary to the Pacific Ocean. All of 
the region north of this line was covered one or more times by 
great ice sheets, except a small area in southwestern Wisconsin 
and adjacent portions of Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois, where 
there appears to have been a sort of island of land surrounded 
by ice, known as the "Driftless Area," while local glaciers oc- 
curred south of the glacial boundary at many points in the 
mountains. 

North of the boundary mentioned, the surface, except for the 
small driftless area, is covered with a mantle of materials de- 
posited by the glacier and known as drift. The drift is divided 
into two main types, the first known as till, and the second as 
modified or stratified drift. Till is a heterogeneous mass, con- 
sisting of clay, sand and boulders, frequently known as hardpan. 
It was deposited mainly directly by the ice, either beneath the 
sheet or at its margin. The second class of drift includes gravels, 
sands and other stratified deposits formed by streams leading 
outward from the ice sheet. It is found chiefly along the valleys 
which were once occupied by glacial streams, but considerable 
amounts were also deposited in temporary glacial lakes which ex- 
isted between the northward sloping land and the retreating ice 
sheet, while some was laid down as broad wash plains. 

The glaciers which left the various types of drift started in the 
far north in relatively recent geologic times and spread south- 
ward to the limits mentioned. Previous to their advance, the 
rocks were probably deeply weathered and covered with soil, as 
in the South at the present time, although the extent of the 
weathering was doubtless somewhat less. The first work of the 
ice was to remove this soft weathered material. Part was in- 
corporated with the till and part was carried off by the streams 
to form clay and sand deposits. Later, after the removal of the 



WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES 6i 

surface soil, the glacier began the work of wearing down the solid 
rocks, plucking off fragments both large and small from the ledge 
and transporting them southward. This material was also left 
in part as till, and in part was carried away by the streams. 

The effect of the drift on the water supply of the northern 
portion of the country is very great. In general, the drift holds 
very much more water than any of the rocks. This water is 
yielded readily to shallow wells, and furnishes by far the larger 
part of the well supplies in the region where it occurs. Water is 
least abundant in the till and most abundant in the stratified 
drift. Its occurrence in till and in sand and gravel has already 
been described (see pp. 40, 42). 

Weathered Rocks. — South of the limits of glacial advance the 
place of the drift is partly taken by the weathered or decomposed 
rocks. The weathering is deepest in the south where the climate 
is more humid and, therefore, more favorable to rock decay. 

The soils south of the drift limits consist of small fragments or 
particles of disintegrated rocks. They are usually colored red and 
yellow by weathering and are very porous, absorbing much water. 
Their thickness, however, is not sufficient to make them a good 
source of water supply, although they yield water to many shallow 
wells. The water is subjected, as in sands and similar materials, 
to more or less complete filtration in its passage downward. 

The Atlantic Coastal Plain. — The Coastal Plain consists of a 
strip of unconsolidated deposits, extending from Long Island on 
the north along the Atlantic and Gulf States into Mexico on the 
south. The width varies from a few miles at the north to several 
hundred miles in the Mississippi River region. 

The surface of the Coastal Plain is low, usually not exceeding 
100 to 500 feet above sea level and, where uncut by erosion, is 
generally fiat. Owing to the soft character of the materials, how- 
ever, the streams have generally cut fairly deep valleys which are 
separated, where not too close together, by fiat- topped ridges 
marking the original surface. Where the streams are close to- 
gether the surface is cut into rolling hills. 



62 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

The materials include clays, sands, gravels, marls and a few 
more or less solid limestones, the latter being present mainly in 
the southern states. A few of the sandy layers have been con- 
solidated and now form sandstones. The beds dip gently toward 
the coast. The waters in the North occur mainly in sands and 
gravels, especially in those at the base of the Coastal Plain de- 
posits. Farther south, particularly in the Gulf States, water is 
found both in sands and in the porous limestones. The quality of 
the water in the gravels in the northern portion of the belt is 
generally soft and good, but farther south, notably where sands 
and gravels alternate with clay or limestone beds, the waters are 
often hard or are charged with sulphur and iron. _ The capacity 
of the wells is generally large and many of them flow without 
pumping. In the aggregate, there are several thousand deep wells 
scattered throughout the Coastal Plain. They are used principally 
for domestic and farm supplies, but some of them that yield soft 
waters are utilized for industrial purposes. In the Gulf States, 
especially in Louisiana, a large number of wells furnish water for 
the irrigation of rice. A considerable number are also used as 
sources of public water supplies. 

The Piedmont Plateau. — The Piedmont Plateau proper con- 
sists of a belt of crystalline rocks, including a few small basins of 
Triassic sandstones, that extends southward from southeastern 
New York along the east front of the Appalachian Mountains to 
Alabama, lying between the mountains and the Coastal Plain. 
Where the plateau joins the Coastal Plain its elevation is only a 
few hundred feet, but the altitude of its surface increases gradu- 
ally toward the northwest, until at the base of the mountains, 
especially in western North Carolina and vicinity, its highest 
points have altitudes of several thousand feet. In the main its 
surface, where uncut by streams, is flat or gently rolling, but 
in its higher portions it has been cut into a series of prominent 
mountains. In the vicinity of the streams near the coast it is 
also cut into a series of lower hills, as in the case of the Coastal 
Plain. 



WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES 63 

The rocks of the Piedmont Plateau proper consist mainly of 
schists, gneisses, granites and other metamorphic or igneous 
rocks, all of which are of crystalline texture. The rocks of the 
Triassic basins consist mainly of sandstones, shales, etc., frequently 
of a deep red color. 

The waters of the Piedmont Plateau are relatively uncertain 
in occurrence, depending largely on the existence of joints or 
other fissures in the rocks, but good supplies have nevertheless 
been obtained at numerous points. In composition the waters are 
usually fairly good, although they sometimes contain considerable 
mineral matter. Relatively few deep wells have been sunk in 
this region, owing to the uncertainty of supply, dependence being 
placed largely on streams or on shallow wells dug in the weathered 
upper portion of the rocks. The waters are used largely for 
domestic and farm purposes and in small industrial establish- 
ments. In a few places public water supplies are obtained from 
the Piedmont rocks, and some important mineral springs are 
found in the region. 

Similar to the Piedmont Plateau are the great areas of igneous 
rocks in Minnesota and Wisconsin and in New York and New 
England. The topography of the rocks in these regions is, in 
general, somewhat more rugged than in the Piedmont Plateau 
proper, and less use is made of the waters, largely because of the 
abundance of lakes, springs and spring-fed streams, or of waters 
in the glacial drift which often overlies the crystalline rocks in 
this portion of the country. 

Appalachian Mountains. — The Appalachian A^Iountains may 
be considered as beginning in eastern Pennsylvania and extending 
southward to central Alabama. The Berkshire Hills in Con- 
necticut and Massachusetts and the Green Mountains in Vermont 
are included in the area by some. The rocks throughout the 
region are strongly folded and broken by faults, the harder beds 
giving rise to the great mountain ridges which characterize the 
belt. The rocks consist of quartzites, sandstones, shales and 
limestones. The sandstones and certain of the limestones carry 



64 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

considerable amounts of water, but are seldom used as a source of 
supply. The water in the limestones is carried in definite chan- 
nels and is of rather uncertain occurrence. Both the sandstones 
and limestones yield copious springs in places. Wells in the syn- 
clines or rock troughs frequently yield water which will some- 
times rise to the surface, but in general dependence is placed on 
the springs which occur in large numbers throughout the belt. 
In the wider limestone valleys wells or cisterns are often used. 
There are very few cities or large industrial establishments in 
this region and deep wells are therefore somewhat rare. 

The Mississippi-Great Lakes Basin. — This basin includes 
the remaining portion of the territory in the eastern half of the 
United States. The surface is moderately low, seldom exceeding 
1000 feet in elevation, and is usually not characterized by promi- 
nent hills or mountains. Except in the areas of igneous rocks, 
noted above, the rocks consist of flat or very gently folded 
sandstones, limestones, shales, etc., varying from Cambrian to 
Carboniferous in age. The Cambrian and other of the older sand- 
stones carry large amounts of water, which is obtained by wells 
that frequently flow at the surface. The Silurian limestones also 
contain considerable water, but, as is the case with water in lime- 
stones elsewhere, its occurrence at a particular point can seldom 
be predicted. 

The younger rocks, including the Devonian and Carbonifer- 
ous, consist to a considerable extent of alternations of shales, 
shaly limestones and sandstones. In the limestones the water 
occurs very much as in other limestones. In the sandstones and 
shales, however, its occurrence is uncertain owing to the lack of 
persistence of the beds. One well may obtain water, while an- 
other a few feet away may fail. The waters are often mineralized, 
especially in Michigan, where they contain a high percentage of 
salt. The Carboniferous limestones abound in springs, some of 
which are of great size. 

The High Plains. — Stretching eastward from the flanks of 
the great Rocky Mountain range and underlying large portions of 



WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES 65 

North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and 
Texas is the broad belt of Cretacious and Tertiary beds forming 
the so-called High Plains. 

These beds, which consist of a great thickness of clays, clayey 
sands and sands with some limestones, dip gently eastward from 
their catchment areas near the mountains on the west. Their 
more porous beds, especially the Dakota, Arikaree and other for- 
mations, are commonly saturated with water which is freely 
yielded to wells. In the western portion of the High Plains the 
great water-bearing formation, the Dakota sandstone, which 
occurs near the base of the series, is relatively near the surface 
and yields large supplies to wells, and, in the deeper river valleys, 
may even give rise to flowing wells. On the higher lands between 
the streams the water is generally raised to the surface by wind- 
mills or by some one of the various forms of power pumps. A 
cattle-raising industry of large proportions is made possible by the 
waters thus obtained. 

To the east the Dakota waters are at depths beyond the 
limits of ordinary drilling and higher formations have to be de- 
pended upon. Besides the deep waters, the shallow underflow in 
the gravels of dry or nearly dry stream beds are extensively uti- 
lized throughout large portions of the High Plains Province. 

In addition to the sands and sandstones of the High Plains, 
the limestones are also frequently important water bearers, 
especially in Texas, where they not only afford supplies to many 
wells, but also give rise to numerous large springs. 

The Rocky Mountain Province. — In the Rocky Mountain 
Province are included the numerous ranges that go to make up 
the great Rocky Mountain system. Though comprising several 
geographically distinct provinces, they may, because of the simi- 
larity of ground water conditions, be considered as a unit. 

As in the Appalachian Mountains, the rocks are greatly dis- 
turbed. In general, the character of the rocks and the topo- 
graphic and geological structure is such as to prevent the existence 
of water systems of more than local importance or extent. Fortu- 



66 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

nately, within the mountains, springs are numerous, while the 
valleys are often filled with gravels that yield satisfactory supplies 
to wells. The rocks themselves are not generally a satisfactory 
source of water for wells. 

Along the flanks of the Rockies, especially those facing the 
Great Basin, broad deltas or fans of gravel, washed out by tor- 
rential streams from the mountains, are often extensively de- 
veloped. These are commonly saturated in their lower portions 
by waters supplied from the hills and frequently furnish abundant 
supplies when penetrated by wells. 

The Great Basin. — By the Great Basin is meant that broad 
tract of desert or semi-desert land lying between the Rocky 
Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas. It is by no means an un- 
interrupted trough, but is broken by numerous mountain ranges, 
ridges and mesas rising sharply above its general surface, often 
the result of tilted fault blocks of immense size. The rainfall is 
slight and the rocks of the elevations are commonly bare and shed 
the scant rain almost as it. falls, giving rise to the torrential rushes 
of water down the numerous canyons that form so characteristic, 
a feature of the region. 

Slight as is the precipitation, however, considerable volumes 
of water find their way into the broad valley or trough-fillings 
between the Basin ranges. These unconsolidated sands and 
silts, partly deposits from the meandering streams of a past geo- 
logic epoch and partly accumulations in lakes that have long since 
disappeared, often contain water within easy reach of the surface 
and form an important source of supply throughout great areas, 
especially in Utah, Arizona and southern California. In a num- 
ber of localities, especially in the California district, the deeper 
waters are under sufficient head to afford flowing wells. Such 
waters are important sources of supply for municipal, ranch and 
irrigation purposes. 

The great lava beds of eastern Washington and Oregon and 
of Idaho fall within the Great Basin Province, and constitute one 
of the most important water horizons of the West. 



WATER PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES 67 

The Pacific Provinces. — Under this term are embraced several 
sub-provinces, including the Sierra- Cascade, the Central Valley, 
the Coast Range and the Pacific Coastal Plain provinces. 

The Sierra-Cascade and Coast Range provinces are not unlike 
the Rocky Mountain Province. Along the Sierra and Cascade 
mountains considerable moisture is condensed by the high peaks. 
The water finds its way down the mountain slopes and into the 
gravels at the base, from which it passes outward into the deep 
alluvial deposits of the great Central Valley of California, lying 
between the Sierra and Cascade ranges on the east and the Coast 
Range on the west. This valley, which is a province by itself, is 
an important source of underground water. The conditions along 
the Coast Range are similar to those of the Sierra-Cascade Range. 
The Pacific Coastal Plain, though developed only in scattered 
patches, is marked by deposits of considerable thickness and 
yields much water in southern California, around Puget Sound 
and elsewhere. 



CHAPTER X. 
TYPES OF WELLS. 

Types of Wells. — Because of their cheapness, convenience 
and fancied safety, wells are by far the most popular source of 
domestic supplies in all regions in which water is found at reason- 
able depth. 

The following tables show clearly and concisely the character- 
istics and methods of sinking the common types adapted to un- 
consolidated materials. 

Types of shallow wells and conditions to which they are adapted. 



Type of well. 



Dug 



Bored. 



Punched . 



Driven , 



Wells sunk by jet process. 



Description. 



Generally circular excavations, 3 to 6 
feet in diameter, dug or blasted by 
hand and curbed with wood or with 
stones or bricks laid without cement. 



Bored with various types of augers 
from 2 inches to 3 feet in diameter, 
rotated and lifted (together with the 
earth) by hand or horsepower. 
Curbed with wood, cement or tile 
sections, with open or cemented 
joints, and more rarely with iron tub- 
ing. 

Small holes, usually under 6 inches in 
diameter, sunk by hand or horse- 
power, by dropping a steel cylinder 
slit at the side so as to hold and lift 
material by its spring. Clay is 
added to incoherent materials like 
sand to bind them together so that 
they can be lifted. 

Small iron tubes, usually I J to 4 inches 
in diameter and provided with point 
and screen, driven downward by 
hand or by simple hand or horse- 
power apparatus. 

Sunk by forcing water down small iron 
" jet pipe " inside of casing, the water 
rising between the two with the 
drillings. Casing sinks by own 
weight or is forced down by jacks or 
otherwise. Diameter usually 2 to 4 
inches. 



Conditions to which well is best 
adapted. 



Adapted to localities where the water is 
near the surface, especially where it 
occurs as small seeps in clayey mate- 
rials and requires extensive storage 
space for its conservation. Should not 
be near sources of pollution. 

Adapted to localities where the water is 
at slight or medium depths and to 
materials similar to those in which 
open wells are sunk. 



Adapted to clayey materials in which 
water occurs as seeps within 50 feet 
of surface, but not at much greater 
depths. 



Adapted to, soft and fine materials, es- 
pecially to sands and similar porous 
materials carrying considerable water 
at relatively slight depths. Particu- 
larly desirable where upper soil car- 
ries polluting matter. 

Adapted to soft materials capable of be- 
ing readily broken up by the water 
jet, especially to sands, etc., carrying 
considerable water at relatively slight 
depths. This method is an improve- 
ment over driven wells, which are 
adapted to same conditions, because 
it affords samples of materials pene- 
trated. Quick and fairly cheap and 
especially useful in sinking large num- 
bers of test wells in adjacent localities. 



68 



TYPES OF WELLS 



69 



Although no two wells are exactly alike in all particulars, 
there are, in reality, only a few distinct forms, the others being 
simply modifications or combinations of these. The kind of well 
to be sunk at a particular locality depends mainly on the nature 
of the material to be encountered, one form being particularly 
adapted to a certain material such as sand, while an entirely 
different form is demanded if rock is to be penetrated. 

For deep waters entirely different types of wells are used. 
These include: (i) the California or stove-pipe well sunk in thick 
unconsolidated deposits by forcing down by jacks a sheet-steel 
casing; (2) the standard drilled well sunk by the drop of a heavy 
iron bit; (3) rotary process wells sunk by rotating a hollow bit 
fitted with cutting shoe and (4) various forms of the so-called 
hydraulic wells in which water is made to assist in the drilling. 
Such wells are usually from 2 to 12 inches in diameter and require 
heavy and often elaborate machinery for their sinking. They are 
often of considerable depth, it not being uncommon to continue 
drilling to depths of 1000 and sometimes 2000 feet if water is not 
found at higher levels. 

The common deep-well methods and a few of their variations 
are considered in more detail in Chapter XIV and statements 
given as to the conditions to which they are adapted. 

Types of Curbings and Casings. — Just as there are various 
types of wells, so are there various methods of curbing and casing 
(or lining) the well, each method being likewise particularly 
adapted to a special type of well or to a certain definite kind of 
material. The common types of curbings and the conditions to 
which they are best adapted are shown in the following table. 



Types af well curbs and casings. 



Type. 


Nature. 


Conditions to which best adapted. 


Rock 


Broken or dressed rock laid without 
cement , usually in circles 3 to 6 feet in 
diameter. 

Porous brick laid without cement, usu- 
ally in circles 3 to 6 feet in diameter. 




Brick 


rials carrying water mainly as small 
seeps, where there is no near-by source 
of pollution. 







yo 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Types of well curbs and casings (Continued). 



Type. 



Nature. 



Conditions to which best adapted. 



Cement-lined rock or 
brick. 



Wood. 



Tiles. 
Do... 



Heavy iron casings . 



Brick or stone as above, but laid in and 
"lined with cement.. 



Square wooden boxes in wells over 3 
feet in diameter; cylindrical curbs of 
narrow staves in wells under 3 feet in 
diameter. 

Glazed sewer tile, cement tile and 
porous terra cotta tile, laid without 
cement. 

Glazed sewer tile and cement tile with 
cemented joints. 

Iron pipes, i to 4 inches in diameter, 
with tight joints. 



Sheet-iron casings Iron pipes 4 to 16 inches in diameter, 

with snug joints. 



Adapted to shallow dug wells in mate- 
rials carrying enough water to permit 
an adequate supply to enter at the bot- 
tom. Can be used in polluted soils if 
the contamination is superficial and 
does not reach to the bottom. 

Can be placed in any shallow well, but 
are never safe and should never be 
used. 

Adapted to conditions similar to those 
of rock and brick curb. 

Same as cement-lined stone or brick 
curbs, except that it is more applicable 
to wells of small diameter. 

Adapted to wells of all depths in which 
water is obtained from a stratum be- 
low the casing, or from strata be- 
tween cased sections. Not adapted 
to strongly corrosive waters. 

Adapted to wells of all depths, in loose 
material, in which it is desired to pro- 
cure water from a number of strata. 



In some types of wells — for example, in dug, bored and 
punched wells — several kinds of curbing or casing may be used, 
and the selection should be governed by the sanitary protection 
or resistance to the entrance of pollution which the casing affords. 
The advantages and disadvantages of the common forms of curbs 
and casings are indicated in the tabulated statement below. 

Summary of advantages and disadvantages of different types of well curbs and casings. 



Type of curbing. 



Advantages. 



Disadvantages. 



Rock. 



Brick. 



Cement-lined rock or 
brick. 



Wood. 



Allows all water to enter, thus utilizing 

all seeps. 
Material often costs little or nothing. 
As a rule requires little money outlay 

for labor. 



Where uncemented it allows all water 

to enter, utilizing all seeps. 
Filters out most of sediment. 
Does not allow small animals to enter. 
Involves little money outlay for labor. 

Safe from pollution (except that enter- 
ing at bottom) as long as walls are 
not cracked. 

Prevents entrance of sediments. 

Prevents entrance of animals. 

Does not impart taste to water. 

Cheap in many localities. 
Can be used in wells of very small di- 
ameter. 
Does not taste of iron. 



Polluting matter enters readily and well 
is never safe if near sources of contam- 
ination. 

Affords no filtration and permits dirt 
and soil to enter. 

Permits entrance of mice and other 
small animals at top. 

Polluting matter enters readily and 
well is never safe when near sources of 
contamination. 

Material costs considerable. 



Utilizes water from bottom only. 

Is unsafe if so shallow that polluting 
matter can reach its bottom. 

Costs considerably more than unce- 
mented wells. 

May require skilled labor. 

Swells tight in wet ground, the water 
either entering at bottom or (after 
sudden rises) through shrunk portion 
at top. 



TYPES OF WELLS 71 

Summary of advantages and disadvantages of dijS'erenl types of well curbs and casings (Continued). 



Type of curbing. 



Wood (continued) 



Glazed and cement tile 
with uncemented joints. 



Glazed and cement tile 
with cemented joints. 



Iron casings . 



Advantages. 



Allows all water to enter, utilizing all 

seeps. 
Does not give taste to water. 
Does not require skilled labor. 



Safe from pollution (except that enter- 
ing at bottom) as long as joints are 
tight. 

Does not require expensive labor. 

Adapted both to rock and to unconsol- 
idated materials. 

Safe from pollution except that enter- 
ing at bottom. 



Disadvantages. 



Pollution enters readily. 
Animals gnaw through. 
Wood rots, giving taste to water and 

favoring development of bacteria. 
Expensive in some localities. 

Polluting matter enters readily and well 
is never safe if near source of contami- 
nation. 

Soil may wash in through joints. 

Requires some outlay for material. 

Can be used only in soft materials con- 
taining considerable water. 



The cost in large deep wells is consider- 
able. 
Practically limited to wells under 14 

inches in diameter. 
Is subject to deterioration by corrosion 
and incrustation in some places. 
Utilizes but one water stratum (except 
where perforated). 



Selection of Type of WelL — The type of well is the first and 
perhaps the most important point to be decided. Of the many 
kinds in use, including the dug, bored and driven types and 
wells sunk by the jet process or drilled by rotary or percussion 
rigs, each possesses, on the one hand, one or more points especially 
qualifying it for use under one or more of the many varying 
conditions encountered in drilling, and, on the other hand, some dis- 
advantage which may disqualify it for use under certain other con- 
ditions. The chief factors which govern the selection of type are, 
usually, the amount of water needed, the character of the materials 
to be penetrated, the depth to which the well must be sunk, the 
cost of sinking the well and the safety of the resulting supply. 
These factors are considered in detail in the following paragraphs. 

Yield as a Factor in Determining Type of Well. — If an ade- 
quate supply of ground water is available, the yield of a well will 
depend on the character of the water-bearing material, the facility 
of entrance of water, the size or storage capacity of the well and 
the nature of the pumps. 

The character of the water-bearing material is of the greatest 
importance in determining the yield of a well, as it is on the 



72 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

structure and texture of the water-bearing beds that the amount 
of water which they will give up depends. A close-textured clay, 
for instance, may hold as high as 50 per cent, while an open- 
textured sand may hold as little as 25 per cent of its volume. 
Notwithstanding this, a sand will ordinarily yield large sup- 
plies, whereas a clay will yield little or no water. In quick- 
sands water is usually present in large amounts, but owing to 
the absence of good foundations for the curbing and the ready 
flow of the fine sand through the minutest crevices, ordinary dug 
wells in such material are generally out of the question and even 
driven wells equipped with the ordinary strainers usually soon 
become clogged. Driven or drilled wells equipped with special 
screens and sunk by experts familiar with the various methods 
of handling quicksand are usually the only types entirely suc- 
cessful in such material. 

Structures, such as solution passages, bedding planes or joints, 
play an important part in determining the yield of a well. 
A solution passage in limestone may afford inexhaustible supplies 
where the mass of the rock is practically destitute of water. In 
other rocks the bedding planes and joints may afford excellent 
supplies where no water is found in the rock itself. The amount 
of water present in the pores of different rocks is indicated by the 
following average porosities: Sandstones 10 per cent, shales 4 per 
cent, limestones 5 per cent, crystalline rocks i per cent. The 
water present in the larger openings mentioned, though small in 
amount in comparison to that held in the pores, is yielded much 
more rapidly and, except in sandstones and similar porous rocks, 
usually affords the principal source of supply. 

The facility with which water enters the well depends in part 
on the rock features enumerated and in part on the nature of the 
well. In loose materials water accumulates most easily in stone- 
curbed and similar types of dug wells and slightly less so in tightly 
curbed dug wells with open bottoms. Where the water bed is a 
strong one and the materials are sufficiently consolidated to pre- 
vent them from entering the well the water will freely enter an 



TYPES OF WELLS 73 

iron casing open at the bottom. In weak water beds, in soft 
materials and in quicksands, either perforated casings or casings 
equipped with long screens are necessary to permit the entrance 
of the required amount of water. In many of the harder rocks 
the walls will stand without caving and casings are therefore un- 
necessary, the water entering at any point without hindrance. 

Where strong water beds exist storage is unnecessary, the 
water entering from the rock as fast as the pumps demand. 
Where the supply is derived from weaker beds, especially those 
having only small seeps, storage is an essential factor and the 
type and size of the well are of great importance. The volume of 
tubular wells of equal depth varies with the square of their di- 
ameters; hence, a 6-inch well will hold nine times as much water 
as a 2-inch well of the same depth, and a 3-foot well thirty-six 
times as much as a 6-inch well. Dug wells are therefore of ad- 
vantage in clays and similar materials where the water enters 
more slowly than it can be lifted by the pumps, for they permit 
accumulations that may tide over periods in which the amount 
used is greater than the supply. For the deeper rock waters dug 
wells are impracticable and small-bore drilled wells must be used 
even where the supplies are slight. To get the best results the 
wells are generally made as large as can be afforded and sunk con- 
siderably below the point of entrance of the water, to afford the 
necessary storage. 

Relation of Depth of Water to Type of Well. — The depth of 
the water is a factor of importance in the determination of the 
type of well to be sunk. A dug well, for instance, is suitable only 
when the water is within 30 or 40 feet of the surface, although 
many deeper dug wells exist. A punched well is commonly 
limited to depths of 50 feet, and a bored well is with difficulty 
carried to depths greater than 100 feet. Driven wells are most 
suitable at depths of less than 150 feet, although they are some- 
times successfully extended to depths of 250 to 300 feet, or even 
to 400 or 500 feet or more, where the conditions are favorable. 
Jet wells are usually sunk only where it is not necessary to go 



74 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

much more than loo feet from the surface. Wells of the Cali- 
fornia type are frequently extended to depths of looo, and 
occasionally to depths of 2000, feet. Hydraulic rotary wells are 
successful to depths of 1000 or 2000 feet in the proper rocks. 
The percussion or churn drill may be used for all depths down 
to 5000 feet or deeper if special outfits are provided. Diamond 
drills have been successfully used to depths of 6000 feet. 

The Cost Factor. — So many items, such as accessibility to 
fuel, cost of labor, trade combinations, knowledge of water con- 
ditions, relative availability^ of different drilling outfits and local 
practice, enter into the cost of a well that only comparative 
statements can be made. Instances are not uncommon where 
wells of certain types have been put down for one-tenth the price 
demanded for wells of the same type in other regions where con- 
ditions are essentially similar. In general, however, if only 
actual outlay of money is considered, the dug well is the cheapest, 
for it may be constructed by the owner himself at times when he 
has nothing else to do. Bored and driven wells do not require 
expensive rigs and are often cheaper than dug wells when paid 
labor is employed in their construction. The California type of 
wells is moderately cheap in soft materials if the proper outfits 
are available, but unfortunately their use is as yet confined 
mainly to a single region. The jet process is adapted to the 
sinking of a large number of adjacent wells in soft materials, 
especially sand, and is occasionally successful for single wells, 
although in most places driven wells can be put down at less cost. 
The hydraulic and rotary processes may be cheaper than percus- 
sion drilling where there are numerous alternations of hard and soft 
material. Of the processes in use for drilling in rock the standard 
rig (percussion drill) is the cheapest, the calyx and diamond sys- 
tems being generally used only when cores of the rocks pene- 
trated are desired. Further details of cost are given in Chapter 
XVI. 

Comparative Safety of Types. — The safety of a well depends 
on the purity of the water at its source and on its protection 



TYPES OF WELLS 75 

against the entrance of contaminated waters and polluting solids. 
The type of well does not affect the purity of the original source ; but 
if the water supply is primarily pure, its maintenance in that con- 
dition depends largely on construction that prevents contamination. 

Polluting matter finds entrance to wells in a variety of ways. 
In dug wells it enters through the crevices in the stone, brick or 
wood curbing, or possibly through the brick itself; in bored wells 
it enters through the uncemented joints of the tiling or through 
cracks between the staves of tubular wooden curbing; and in 
drilled and driven wells, through leaky joints or holes eaten in the 
iron casing by corrosive waters. By cementing the interior sur- 
faces of stone or brick curbed wells, by replacing wood by cement 
or other impervious curbs, and by substituting new pipes for 
leaky iron casings the entrance of polluting matter through the 
walls can be prevented. Little or nothing enters the small tubular 
wells from the top and they may, therefore, be regarded as free 
from danger of pollution from this point. The larger open wells 
should be protected by a water-tight iron or cement cover standing 
somewhat above the level of the surrounding ground and tightly 
joined to the curb proper. The sloping of the earth away from the 
well serves to turn rainwater or pump drippings away from it, so 
that little will penetrate, even if the curb becomes cracked by frost. 

A particularly dangerous type of well — the more so because 
of the fancied security of the owners — is the combination dug 
and drilled type. Because of a slight saving of expense, drilled 
wells are frequently sunk in old dug wells, the casing commonly 
beginning at the bottom of the old well. Although the water en- 
countered by the deep well may be perfectly pure, it is liable to be 
contaminated, especially after rains, by the entrance of seepage 
waters into the open well and thence into the drilled well. The 
remedies are obvious; either the casing should be carried to the 
surface of the outside ground, or at least above the highest level 
ever reached by the water, or the open well should be converted 
into a water-tight cistern by the application of a thick coat of 
cement over both sides and bottom. 



CHAPTER XL 
k DUG WELLS. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Dug Wells. — Dug wells, 
because of the ease with which they may be constructed by the 
farmer himself when other work is not pressing, require little 
money outlay and are therefore very popular. As commonly 
sunk, however, they are the most dangerous of all sources of water, 
but with certain precautions, discussed below, they may be made 
to yield satisfactory supplies. 

The merits and drawbacks of this class of wells are concisely 
summarized in the following table: 

Dug wells. 



Advantages. 


Disadvantages. 


Ease of construction; can be located, sunk and 


Limitation to soft materials; liability to caving while being 


cased by owner. 


dug. 


Only hand power required. 




No outfit required. 




No expensive materials required for curbing. 




Cheapness in soft material. 


Costliness in hard rock. 




Wood curbing often used affords favorable conditions for 




the development of bacteria. 




Slight depth to which it can be sunk. 


Ease of entrance of water. 


Ease of entrance of polluting matter through and over top 




of curb. 


Utilization of all water strata. 


Water, not being replenished, is often stagnant. 


Utilization of small seeps. 


Fails frequently in time of drought. 


Quick response to rainfall. 


Must usually be at distance from house and from barns, 




privies and cesspools to insure safety. 


Large storage capacity. 


Necessity for frequent cleaning; danger from gas while 




cleaning. 


Accessibility for cleaning. 


Short life when curbed with wood. 




Ease of entrance of animals and refuse through open top. 



Importance of Proper Location of Dug Wells. — Upon the 
proper location of the dug well, both the quantity and purity of 
the water supply, in a large measure, depend. The chief con- 
siderations in the location of open wells and wells in which pervious 
casings are used, in the order of importance usually ascribed to 

them by the owners, are : Cost, accessibility, convenience and 

76 



DUG WELLS 77 

safety. The requirements, unfortunately, often conflict. Most 
houses and barns are located on elevations for the sake of good 
drainage, sightliness or other considerations, but wells in such 
situations are rarely as cheap as the less convenient wells in the 
hollows. Again, convenience often demands that the well be 
located near the house, where slops are thrown upon the ground, 
in the vicinity of a cesspool or privy, or near the barnyard or 
hogpen, while safety demands its location on high ground at a 
considerable distance from these and other sources of pollution. 

In cases of conflicting requirements it is too often the cost 
which eventually determines the location, or rather it is the 
initial cost, for in many instances the final cost of a proper in- 
stallation — if the cost of the resultant loss of health is con- 
sidered — is much less than that of an improper installation 
although the latter may not produce actual di^ase. 

A safe well is nearly always, in the long run, the cheapest, such 
a well being decidedly cheaper than the cost of medical attend- 
ance. Safety should invariably be made the first consideration 
instead of the last. A well should never be put down in a doubt- 
ful situation, even as a temporary makeshift, for the owner 
almost always waits until too late before replacing it. 

The safety of a well depends upon its protection from all 
forms of pollution, both that which enters from the surface and 
that seeping through the ground. A consideration of the sources 
of contamination is, therefore, of paramount importance. 

Sources of Pollution. — Open or dug wells may be polluted by 
material seeping through the ground and curbing or entering from 
the top of the well. Of the seepage materials cesspools and 
privies are the most important source. In most localities the 
large amount of liquid reaching such receptacles is rapidly ab- 
sorbed by the earth and becomes a part of the water-body feeding 
the wells. Slops thrown on the surface likewise soak into the 
ground, and even if the liquid at first evaporates the residue is 
later taken up by the rain which sinks into the ground, and is 
carried downward to the ground-water body. The matter leached 



78 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

from hen yards, from hogpens and from the manure piles near 
barns, eventually enters the ground and finds its way in one form 
or another to the ground water below. Drainage from manured 
fields and from pastures occupied by stock may also be a promi- 
nent source of pollution. Much of the polluted water from such 
sources is purified by passage through the ground and the danger 
of pollution of well waters by seepage is commonly exaggerated, 
yet gross carelessness in locations of wells near privies, cesspools, 
drain-pipes and other filth receptacles is prevalent in many farm 
districts. 

One of the greatest sources of pollution for farm wells is 
the entrance of material at the top, and dug wells are especially 
liable to contamination of this sort, though other well types are 
not entirely exempt (Fig. 34). 

Of the material entering a well from the open top dust is an 
important source of contamination. It is always present in the 
air and the amount actually settling is very many times more than 
the conspicuous dust coatings collecting in buildings. In fact, in 
open wells, especially in regions where brisk winds are common, 
the accumulations sometimes amount to several inches in a year. 
Many wells which are cleaned only once in two years are found to 
contain as much as 6 inches of foul-smelling black muck, repre- 
senting the dust and other refuse entering the well in that length 
of time. 

Small animals, such as toads, mice, moles and snakes, fall into 
the well in times of drought when the sources of water they 
usually depend on have failed. 

Except that it keeps the larger animals out and is a con- 
venience in using the well, the ordinary plank covering affords 
but little improvement over the open well. Crevices almost in- 
variably exist through which the smaller animals may find access, 
and the dirt washed through the cracks by the pump drippings 
may be almost equal to that entering through an open top. 
Moreover, it is a very dangerous type of dirt, as in many places it 
includes filth from domestic fowls and from the shoes of farm 





(79) 



DUG WELLS 8i 

hands and others coming from manured fields, hogpens or barn- 
yards. 

The ''Safety Distance" Factor in the Location of Dug Wells. — 

By "safety distance" is meant the distance from a source of 
pollution at which a well may be sunk with a fair degree of safety. 
Some writers have spoken of a "cone of safety," by which is 
meant an inverted conical section of earth with its apex at the 
bottom of the well and its base a circle of some fixed radius on the 
surface. The radius taken by some is the depth of the well, by 
others twice the depth of the well, but such limits are usually 
fixed without taking into consideration the nature of ground- 
water movements or the character of the passages in which it 
moves. The distance of safety also depends to a considerable 
degree on the quantity and concentration of the pollution enter- 
ing the ground water. Where coming from the surface the 
amount is commonly not large, but where entering at a con- 
siderable depth, as from cesspools sunk in limestone or in porous 
sands which also supply water to wells, it may reach the water 
stratum almost undiluted. It follows that no absolute radius can 
be laid down, each case demanding individual consideration. 
Certain generalizations, however, may be made as to conditions 
in materials of different types and under different topographic 
conditions, some of which are indicated below. 

In ordinary clay and in the pebbly or boulder clay known as 
"till" the water circulates in part by general seepage through the 
mass, in part through relatively thin sandy layers and in part 
along more or less open but irregular tubular passages. Seepage 
through the body of the clay or till is very slow and polluting 
matter is rarely carried for any great lateral distance; lOO feet 
from the nearest source of pollution may perhaps be regarded as 
a safe limit. The clay offers even more resistance to the passage 
of water directly downward, a 5-foot bed as a rule effectively 
shutting off polluting matter from the underlying water beds, un- 
less such matter obtains access along the break made in sinking 
a well or other excavation. When the water follows sandy layers 



82 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

the movement, though much faster than in uniform clay, is never- 
theless not very rapid, rarely exceeding a few feet per day, and 
pollution does not often extend much over 150 feet, 200 feet 
usually being a safe distance. In open passages movement is 
much more rapid and may amount to several hundred feet a day 
in extreme cases. Under such conditions there is no purification 
and relatively little dilution, and if the passage discharges into a 
well dangerous contamination may result. In a thickly in- 
habited region a well depending for its supply on passages of this 
nature is never safe. 

A bed of sand is among the safer water beds. Being of an in- 
coherent nature, the material rarely contains open passages, the 
water circulating in general by a slow movement among the 
grains. The rate, though sometimes amounting to 50 feet or 
more a day, is usually under 5 feet and may be under i foot. A 
well 200 feet from the nearest point of pollution is probably safe 
in fine and medium sands, but in coarse sands and gravel a much 
greater distance may be essential. 

The movement of water in sandstone is in part through the 
body of the rock and in part through small open passages along 
the joint or bedding planes. Owing to the greater density of the 
rock resulting from the cementation of the grains the distance to 
which pollution may extend through the pores of the rock is less 
than in sand, 100 feet usually being a safe distance. Probably even 
with the water moving along the joints and bedding planes 125 
to 150 feet from the source of pollution is a safe distance for a well. 

In slate and shale the water follows in part the planes of 
stratification or bedding and in part the more or less vertical joints 
by which these rocks are usually cut. Unless certain of the 
layers are sandy the movement along the bedding planes is gener- 
ally slow and pollution is carried for only short distances. The 
joints, however, are in many places fairly open and may conduct 
the water within a short time to considerable distances, possibly 
many hundred feet, like the granite joints described on p. 44. 
However, unless the examination of the rock or the behavior of the 



DUG WELLS 83 

drill in the well shows the presence of such open joints, a well in 
slate or shale may usually be considered safe if not less than 100 
feet from a source of pollution. 

The movement of water through limestone is almost entirely 
by means of open passages. Some of these are only a minute 
fraction of an inch in width, being no wider than joint and bedding 
planes. In such passages the movement of water is very slow and 
pollution is rarely carried far, 150 feet from a possible source 
usually being a safe distance. Other passages, however, are of 
considerable size, perhaps many feet in diameter, and may extend 
for miles. One chamber in Mammoth Cave is several miles 
long, and there is evidence that similar though perhaps smaller 
channels exist at numerous other points. These openings are not 
uncommonly occupied by flowing streams which, if polluting mat- 
ter is introduced, may carry it for many miles. Such streams 
may have connection with surface sink holes. Cornstalks and 
other refuse from the surface not infrequently appear in wells 
drawing water from limestone, and the waters are often muddy 
after storms. Such occurrences . are indications of surface con- 
tamination and the waters should be avoided if possible. 

Practically no water passes through the body of granite, the 
movement being mainly along joint or fault planes or through 
pore spaces in the disintegrated upper portions of weathered 
granite masses. Polluting matter may reach to considerable dis- 
tances through joint or fault planes, as is Indicated by the fact 
that the salt water of the ocean finds entrance to some wells 
located 500 feet, and in places even a quarter of a mile or more 
from the shore. It Is said that in the deep public well sunk in 
granite at Atlanta, Ga., sufficient polluting matter entered through 
a joint struck at 11 60 feet from the surface to render the water 
unfit for drinking. 

Best Situations for Dug Wells. — The best locations for dug 
wells are those points at which there can be no possibility of the 
access of polluting matter. The usual distance to which such 
matter travels has been discussed In the preceding section. 



84 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

If a well is to be located at a less distance from source of 
pollution than that prescribed, It should be dug on higher ground, 
so that the moving ground waters will carry the Impurities away 
from, rather than toward it. It Is far better to spend the few ad- 
ditional dollars required (because of the greater depth to the 
water) to sink a well on higher ground than to risk sickness by 
locating it where there Is danger of pollution. It Is not sufficient 
that the mouth of the well be above the source of pollution. The 
water level In the well must also be above the source of contami- 
nation, even when farthest depressed by drought or pumping, for 
otherwise pollution-bearing seepage might soon find its way to 
the well. 

Digging the Well. — The process of constructing the common 
dug well is so simple and so familiar that a few brief statements 
will suffice. 

By far the greater number of dug wells will naturally be of 
circular cross section, since, for a given capacity of water, less 
material will be required for curbing. Moreover, the curbing, if 
of stone or brick, Is more easily laid and Is less liable to cave under 
the pressure of the surrounding earth. 

The original excavations commonly vary from 6 to lO feet In 
diameter where stone is to be used for curbing. Such curbings, 
even in the smaller and shallower wells, are seldom under 15 
inches in thickness and In the larger and deeper wells often have 
a thickness of from 2 to 2I feet. The finished wells, where the ex- 
cavation Is 6 to 10 feet, will, therefore, seldom be more than from 
3 to 6 feet In diameter. When bricks are used for lining the well 
the thickness of the walls Is usually much less, being seldom more 
than half that of the stone curbs. The same is true of the cement 
curbs, which are occasionally used for that portion of the well 
lying above the water level. A thickness of 12 to 15 Inches Is 
usually sufficient for depths down to 15 or 20 feet, but some- 
what greater thicknesses are required for the deeper wells. The 
cement Is laid between inner and outer forms, or, where the earth 
Is stiff enough to stand alone, between an inner form and the 
outer wall of the excavation. 



DUG WELLS 85 

The excavation for dug wells that are to be curbed with wood 
are generally square and of slight depth. The joints on which 
the boards are nailed are preferably placed on the outside next 
the earth walls. Such curbings, however, are undesirable in al- 
most every particular and are to be avoided wherever possible. 

In digging open wells there is always grave danger of caving, 
although such wells are not unfrequently carried (in stiff clayey 
materials) to depths of 40 to 60 feet or even more without the use 
of any support whatever for the walls. In sandy and other in- 
coherent materials, however, temporary supports are generally 
necessary to protect the workmen if the well is carried to any 
depth. . • 

Size and Depth of Wells. — Ordinary clay and the denser 
varieties of pebbly and boulder clay or till usually contain but 
little water, and this little is often largely in the form of inter- 
stitial water held in the body of the material and given up slowly 
to a well by general seepage. Under such conditions the amount 
entering the well is often more or less proportional to the area of 
surface exposed in the wall. This area varies with the diameter 
of the well ; thus, three times as much surface will be exposed in a 
given height of wall in a 6-inch well as In a 2-inch well and six 
times as much in a 3-foot as in a 6-inch well. To give a large 
yield a large-diameter well is very desirable in materials of the 
character mentioned. 

Large wells are also desirable in rocks in which the water occurs 
in a similar manner, that is, in pores rather than in open pas- 
sages. In general, however, If water is yielded at all by the rocks, 
it is given up more readily than by clays, hence a large bore is 
less necessary. This is fortunate, for the range of size in rock 
wells Is usually rather scant, owing to the fact that most rock 
wells are of the drilled type. Where the water occurs in bedding 
or joint planes the diameter is of still less importance, as the en- 
trance of the water is localized and Is relatively free. Large 
diameters, nevertheless, increase materially the likelihood of strik- 
ing an opening. In the oil regions the increase of the diameter of 



86 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

a bore 2 inches by reaming has been known to open pools not en- 
countered in the original hole, and a similar result is possible in 
water wells. 

The depth of dug wells in material in which the amount of 
water is relatively small is also important, for increase in depth 
increases the storage space in which the water can collect during 
periods when the well is not in use, thereby greatly adding to its 
total capacity. 

In many regions, owing to the removal of the forests and the 
construction of drainage ditches, the water from rainfall and 
snowfall runs off more rapidly than formerly and much less sinks 
into the ground. As a result the ground-water level has been 
lowered over large areas, and wells which once afforded good sup- 
plies are now dry. In many places there is still plenty of water 
in the ground, the only difference being that its level has sunk 
below the bottom of the well. In such places the deepening of 
the well brings complete relief. 

Protection of Dug Wells. — Many open wells are exposed to 
the same danger of pollution from surface wash as springs, and the 
same methods of protection should be used. A water-tight curb 
should be raised a few inches or a foot above the level of the sur- 
rounding surface and the earth banked around it, with a slope 
away from the well. This curb quickly deflects the water and 
prevents it from collecting and soaking through the ground into 
the well. 

The chief means by which wells become polluted by stock is 
through seepage from the surface. Watering troughs are com- 
monly placed close to wells, and usually in such places the hoofs 
of the animals soon wear holes in which the rain water and more 
or less of the animal excrement collect and soak into the ground, 
finally reaching the well. To prevent this contamination the 
watering trough should be placed as far away from the well as 
possible, the water being conducted to it by pipes. A well in an 
open pasture, if it is to be used at all by human beings for drink- 
ing water, should be surrounded by a fence at least 20 feet away. 



DUG WELLS 87 

The drip from pumps is a very common and dangerous source 
of pollution. In the greater proportion of dug wells provided 
with pumps the well is covered with boards or planks laid or 
nailed over the top. No matter how carefully these platforms are 
constructed cracks through which water can enter almost in- 
variably exist, and it is a common occurrence to have the water 
dropping or trickling back into the well whenever any is spilled 
in pumping. The danger of this will be understood when it is re- 
called that those stepping upon the platform to pump may have 
just come from the barnyard or from manured fields, bringing 
with them on their shoes more or less filth, part of which is left on 
the planking and washed into the well by dripping water from the 
pump or by the next rain. The wooden platform should be re- 
placed by a water-tight cover made of iron, cement or other im- 
pervious material. Cement covers are coming into use in many 
localities and afford ideal protection. 

An ever-present cause of pollution in open wells and wells in- 
sufficiently protected by coverings is the entrance of small animals. 
It is a common thing for snakes, toads, mice and even rabbits to 
penetrate through crevices and to fall into the well, especially in 
dry seasons when the animals are compelled to make desperate 
attempts to reach water. The remedy is an impervious well 
cover fitted tightly to the curb. 

Dust is usually less dangerous than other sources of pollution, 
but in dry seasons, when dirt from the street or barnyard is being 
blown about, it may become of considerable amount and danger. 
It is not uncommon to find several inches of black, foul-smelling 
silt in the bottom of a well on cleaning, even though it may have 
been cleaned only a year or two before. The dust may be kept 
out by water-tight coverings such as are used to keep out pump 
drippings. 

Seepage through the curb of a well at points above the water 
level is one of the most frequent and most dangerous sources of 
pollution. The slight thickness of soil through which the water 
has percolated and the brief interval required for the passage 



88 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

through the ground precludes any effective filtration or purifica- 
tion, and the seepage entering the well will carry with it in prac- 
tically unmodified form any polluting matter it may have picked 
up at the surface or in the surface soil. As a prevention it was 
often formerly the practice to surround the outside of the stone 
curb with a layer of puddled clay, but the more common treat- 
ment at the present time is to lay the portion of the curb above 
the water level in cement. 

Cleaning the Well. — In the course of time the material enter- 
ing the well as dust at the top, or washed in through the 
ground, forms a considerable accumulation of silt in the bot- 
tom and on the sides. In some wells this deposit is sufficient to 
hinder, to a certain extent, the entrance of water into the well and 
to lessen its storage capacity. Some relief is usually afforded by 
cleaning out the well. 

In deep dug wells, especially those that have been kept tightly 
covered, dangerous gases sometimes collect, and lives are not in- 
frequently lost by descending such wells too soon after they have 
been opened. Carbon dioxide, one of the commonest of the gases 
found in wells, may be detected by lowering a lighted lantern to 
the bottom of the well, the flame being extinguished if the gas is 
present in dangerous quantities. 



CHAPTER XII. 
BORED AND PUNCHED WELLS. 

Advantages and Disadvantages. — Bored wells, which include 
those sunk with various forms of earth augers, and punched wells, 
sunk by dropping slit steel cylinders, together constitute a type 
intermediate between the dug well and the driven and drilled 
wells (Fig. 35). The larger of the bored wells are closely related 
to the dug wells, inasmuch as they are commonly fitted with per- 
vious curbs, and many of them differ only in size and method of 
removing the earth. The smaller bored wells, and most of the 
punched wells, on the other hand, are provided with tight cas- 
ings, and are more nearly related to wells of the driven or drilled 
types. 

A summary of the good and bad features of bored and punched 
wells is given below. 



Bored wells (Arkansas type, 2 to 12 inches in diameter, tight casings). 



Advantages. 



Ease of construction; only hand or horse power 
usually required; skilled labor not essential in 
shallower holes. 

Cheapness for moderate depth. 

Deeper wells little affected by drought. 

Pollution shut out if properly cased. 

Gives good records of materials penetrated and 
water beds encountered. 



Disadvantages. 



Limitation to soft materials. 

Not adapted to very deep wells. 

Utilizes only one stratum in most places. 

Other disadvantages similar to those of drilled wells. 



Punched wells. 



When provided with pervious curbings the ad- 
vantages are similar to those of open and Iowa 
type bored wells; when provided with tight 
casings the advantages are similar to those of 
the Arkansas type bored wells. 



Similar to those of open wells and the larger type of bored 

wells. 
Difficulty of operation; liability of crooked holes. 
Usual limitation to depths under so feet. 
Limitation to soft yet stiff materials, which are generally 

of local distribution. 



90 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Bored wells {Iowa type, i to 3 feet in diameter, pervious curbing). 



Advantages. 



Ease of construction; only hand or horse power 

required. 
No expensive materials required for curbing. 
Cheapness. 
Utilization of all water strata where curbed with 

uncemented tile. 
Utilization of small seeps. 



Quick response to rainfall. 

Considerable storage capacity. 
Accessibility of larger types for cleaning. 



Disadvantages. 



Slowness of method as compared with driving. 

Special outfit required for all but small shallow holes. 

Limited to soft materials. 

Ease of entrance of polluting matter through curb and over 
top. 

Limitation of points of entrance of water to top and bottom 
with many wooden curbs. 

Wood curbs favor development of bacteria. 

Water, not being replenished, is often stagnant in larger 
bores. 

Failures frequent in droughts. 

Necessity of location at distance from house to insure safety. 

Necessity of frequent cleaning; danger from gas while clean- 
ing in the larger types. 

Limitation of practicable depth of large bores. 

Limitation of size. 

Short life when curbed with wood. 



Location and Protection of Bored and Punched Wells. — Since, 
in the larger bored wells, the methods of curbing, the manner of 
entrance of the water supplies and the mode of penetration of 
pollution are the same in all essential particulars as in the common 
dug well, it follows that the same rules as to location and pro- 
tection (see pp. 76 to 84) will apply. Likewise, the location and 
safeguarding of the smaller, tightly cased bored wells and the 
punched wells will fall under the rules laid down for driven and 
drilled wells (pp.98 and 108) and need not be further discussed at 
this point. 

Sinking the Bored "Well. — For sinking the small bored wells, 
including those of from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, a common 
carpenter's auger (Fig. 36, 3) welded to a rod or pipe fitted at the 
end with a wooden handle passing through a plumber's "T" (for 
the purpose of turning and lifting the auger) Is frequently used 
(Fig. 36, i). The centering point Is usually removed, as shown 
in the illustration, as it Is found a hindrance rather than a help In 
boring. 

Another common type of auger has the form of a spiral coil. 
It is made of tire iron, welded or riveted to the turning rod at the 
top, and provided with a cutting edge at the bottom (Fig. 36, 2). 
It Is more efficient than the preceding form, but is more ex- 
pensive to construct, and requires more power to operate. Owing 




Fig. 36. — Drive point and well augers, i, turning handle; 2, 3, well augers; 4, drive 

point and screen. 

(91) 



BORED AND PUNCHED WELLS 



93 



to the considerable weight of the earth Hfted, a windlass or some 
form of tackle is sometimes required to lift it to the surface. It 
may be necessary to pour water into the hole to give sufficient 
coherence to the materials to cause them to cling to the auger. 

For medium-sized wells, larger forms of the same 
general type are frequently used, augers of the stand- 
ard shape with diameters of 6 or 8 inches being not 
uncommon. In general, however, special forms, sim- 
ilar to those described in the following paragraph, are 
used. 

For boring wells of large size, from 6 to 36 inches 
in diameter, some one of the various patented forms 
_ are generally used. The com- 

mon shapes are illustrated by 
Figures 37, 38 and 39. The 
method of work is shown by 
Figure 40, while a special form 
of bit for lifting boulders is 
illustrated by Figure 41. Nu- 
merous other forms are in use 
locally. Fig. 37. — 

r^y , . , ,, Common form 

1 he 2- and 3-mch wells ^f ^^n 
are usually equipped with \\- 
or 2-inch-iron pipes, leading from the sur- 
face to a point a few feet below water 
level. Where the material in which a 
well ends is coarse enough so that it will 
not clog the pipe, a number of small holes 
are drilled near the lower end to facilitate 
the entrance of the water. On pumping, 
the finer material is raised with the water 
through the pipe until the remaining coarser particles form a 
natural filter around the pipe. Pebbles are sometimes inserted 
through the pipe to aid nature in forming such a strainer. (Fig. 
42). In finer materials, a screen is often necessary (Fig. 36,4), 




auger. 



Fig. 38. — Common form of 
well borer. 



94 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 




Fig. 39. — Form 
of well borer. 




Fig. 40. — Method of using well auger. 




-a 

— (D- 
_^ 

— O 

-_io 



JK 



^=lV 



7: 



ooC> 0?- 



Fig. 41. — Special 
well auger for 
lifting boulders. 



Fig. 42. — Diagram showing 
advantages of packing 
with gravel. 



BORED AND PUNCHED WELLS 95 

but Its use Is often objectionable because of the ease with which 
It becomes clogged. 

The larger bored wells are often equipped with wooden casings 
(Figs. 35 and 40) which are driven down by wooden maul. This 
type of curb has many disadvantages (see table, p. 70), and tile or 
cement casings are to be preferred whenever they are obtainable. 
All joints lying above water level should be tightly cemented. 

Sinking Punched Wells. — This type of well Is most common 
in regions of coherent soils such as the clays of Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, etc. The apparatus Is described by A. C. Veatch as a cylin- 
der of steel or Iron from one to two feet In length, split along one 
side. The lower portion is slightly expanded, sharpened and tem- 
pered Into a cutting edge. In use It is attached to a rope or 
wooden poles, and is lifted and dropped In the hole by means of 
a rope given a few turns around a windlass or drum. By this 
process the material is forced up Into the bit, slightly springs It, 
and Is so held. Water Is sometimes added when drilling In dry 
materials to aid the bit In "picking up." Sand layers are passed 
by throwing clay Into the well and mixing it with the sand until 
the drill bites. 

The diameters of punched wells are usually only a few inches, 
and their casing and pumping equipment Is commonly similar to 
that of the small bored wells. Wood casing is occasionally used 
in the larger holes, which are sometimes as much as 6 Inches In 
diameter. 

Depths of Bored and Punched Wells. — The boring (auger) 
process Is best adapted to shallow wells, from 20 to 30 feet In 
depth, but Is commonly used to depths of 50 feet. It is carried 
to greater depths with difficulty and Is seldom used where the 
water Is more than a hundred feet from the surface. 

In the smaller bored holes, the diameter of the boring Is com- 
monly Insufficient to admit of the Insertion of a pump cylinder, 
hence the depth to the supply must not exceed that from which 
water can be conveniently lifted by suction, or about 25 feet. 

The limitations of the smaller punched wells are similar to 



96 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

those of the small bored wells. Larger punched wells are sunk 
to depths of 50 feet, but the inherent difficulties of the process 
hinder its use at greater depths. 

Cleaning Bored and Punched Wells. — The small diameter 
wells, if they become fouled, can sometimes be cleaned by hard 
and continued pumping. If this fails the pipe must usually be 
withdrawn, taken apart and the material removed. The trouble 
will be commonly found to lie in the strainer, which will often 
have to be replaced. 

Accumulations in the larger bored and punched wells may 
commonly be removed by inserting an auger of the proper size 
and type. That shown in Fig. 38 is well adapted to this purpose. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
DRIVEN AND JET WELLS. 



Extensive Use of Driven Wells. — Driven wells, which are 
sunk by forcing iron pipes, equipped with points (Fig. 36, 4) at the 
end, into the ground by blows at the top of the pipe, are exceed- 
ingly common in the United States as well as in other parts of the 
world. They are found in the sand and gravel terraces along our 
principal rivers, in the sandy and gravelly glacial deposits, through- 
out the great area of soft sediments along the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts and Mississippi Valley, and elsewhere. Abroad, they have 
been used in army camps at many points, being frequently known 
as Abyssinia wells because of their extensive use in the Abyssinian 
campaign of 1895. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Driven Wells. — From the 
fact that they may be quickly sunk, that they are relatively 
cheap and that the tight casings, carried to or below the water 
level, shut out polluting matter, it follows that the popularity of 
these wells is deserved. They possess, of necessity, however, cer- 
tain drawbacks. These are indicated, together with their merits 
in the following table. 

Driven wells. 



Advantages. 



Ease of construction; often sunk in a few hours; 

only hand or horse power usually required. 
Outfit is inexpensive, can be quickly put up, and 

does not require skilled labor. 
Tubing is readily obtainable and inexpensive. 
Cheapness. 

Safety; can be located near sources of pollution if 
sunk through impervious bed preventing access 
of contaminating matter to water bed; nothing 
can enter at top. 

Permanency of supply as compared with dug 
wells. 

Cleaning seldom necessary as compared to open 
wells. 



Disadvantages. 



Limitation to soft materials. 

Utilization of a single water stratum. 

Usual limitation to moderate depths. 

Restriction to open porous water beds due to absence of 

storage facilities. 
Slow response to rainfall as compared to many dug wells. 
Corrosion of pipes or screens. 
Incrustation of pipes and screens. 

Entrance of quicksand through screens. 

Taste of water due to solution of the iron under certain 

conditions. 
Difficulty of cleaning in case of clogging. 
Short life as compared to some dug wells. 
Absence of information as to minor water beds or materials 

penetrated. 



97 



98 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Location of Driven Wells. — Since the wells of the driven 
type are tightly cased from the pump at the surface to the water- 
bearing layer below, it is manifest that there can ordinarily be no 
entrance of polluting matter either at the top or by seepage 
through the sides. 

Since contaminating matter can enter only at the bottom of 
the well it must previously filter through a thickness of material 
equivalent to the full length of the pipe; and, as wells of this type 
are commonly sunk only in sands and gravels, both of which are 
naturally good filters, it follows that unless polluting matter is 
carried into the ground in large quantities there is relatively 
little danger of contamination in wells of this sort. It has been 
found that in spite of exceedingly unsanitary surroundings of 
wells of this type in many sandy districts, the waters were reason- 
ably safe. 

In fact, except in villages where the whole upper part of the 
ground-water body is polluted, there is comparatively little danger 
of contamination if the casing is carried to a point below the 
polluted zone. Experience has shown that this zone is usually of 
no great thickness and a well drawing its supply from ten feet 
below the ground-water level will often prove safe where one just 
reaching the water-table would be dangerously polluted. 

A driven well with its strainer 15 feet below water level (when 
the latter is at its lowest point) will be practically free from 
danger; and, if it can be carried to this depth, its exact location 
will generally be immaterial, and it may be placed where most 
convenient. 

Sinking the Driven Well. — The pipe, which is commonly 
from I to 3 inches in diameter and provided with a driving point 
at the end, is usually driven into the ground by a wooden or iron 
maul, operated either by hand or by power. In the larger and 
deeper wells a heavy weight, operated by a revolving drum and 
hoisting sheave, or by various horse-power appliances, is used. 
Additional lengths of pipe are screwed on to the preceding sec- 
tions from time to time until the required depth is attained. 



DRIVEN AND JET WELLS 



99 



Ordinarily, especially when the depth of the water-bearing 
stratum is unknown, a screen (Fig. 43) Is Inserted between the 
drive point and pipe, and the well is tested from time to time by a 
suction pump screwed to the top of the pipe (in case of shallow 




Fig. 43. — Types of screen and well points. 



wells) or by deep well pumps inserted within the outer tube (in 
case of the deeper and larger wells). 

When a satisfactory supply Is reached the well Is generally 
subjected to heavy pumping for several hours to draw from the 
strainer and the surrounding materials the finer materials, clay, 
etc., leaving a natural filter surrounding the screen as shown in 
Fig. 44. 



lOO 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 




If the screen is clogged by sand or clay that cannot be re- 
moved by ordinary pumping, water is sometimes forced down the 
well to carry the material out into the surrounding soil. Another 

method of avoiding the difficulty is to 
drive the pipe without screen, and 
with a loosely fitting drive point. On 
reaching water, the pipe is withdrawn 
a short distance, while the screen, 
which has been previously lowered 
through the casing, is simultaneously 
pressed upon the shoe or drive point 
which remains behind . The withdrawal 
of the outer casing is stopped as the 
top of the screen is reached, and the 
well left in substantially the same 
condition (except that there has been 
no clogging of the screen due to driv- 
ing) as if the screen had been sunk in 
the usual way. 

An advantage of screens inserted 
in this manner is that they may, if 
the materials are fairly coherent, be withdrawn for cleaning or 
replacement, but there is the disadvantage that no tests of quan- 
tity of water can be m^ade during the process of sinking. 

A simpler method is to use a pipe that slips down over the 
screen and rests on the point during the process of driving. The 
pipe can be withdrawn a little at a time and the well tested by 
pumping, after which, if water is not found, driving may be 
resumed. The danger, under this method, lies in the fact that in 
pushing forward the casing over the screen the latter is likely to 
be torn and ruined by pebbles ground into it by the advancing 
pipe (Fig. 43, i). 

Depths of Driven Wells. — Driven wells are best adapted to 
sandy or similar materials where the water rises to within 25 feet 
of the surface, but they are, nevertheless, very common in many 



Fig. 44. — Diagram showing for- 
mation of sand filter through 
pumping. 



DRIVEN AND JET WELLS loi 

regions where the water is found as much as 50 feet below the sur- 
face, and they are sometimes successfully extended to depths of 250 
or 300 feet, or even to 400 or 500 feet or more where the materials 
are easily penetrated and other conditions are favorable. As pre- 
viously stated it is always advisable to carry the well from 10 to 
15 feet or more below the point where water is first encountered. 

Cleaning and Care of Driven Wells. — If the water reached by 
a driven well contains much iron a crust will commonly accumu- 
late in the screen and rapidly reduce or even cut off the inflow. 
Sometimes the portion of the incrustation on the inside of the 
casing may be jarred off by pounding sharply on the top of pipe, 
but if on the outside, as is more commonly the case, the screen 
will have to be removed. 

If the case is taken in hand in time, the removal of the screen 
presents few difficulties, but in some parts of the country the 
accumulation of incrustants, especially those of lime and silica 
about the screen is very rapid ; and often, almost before its pres- 
ence is realized, it has reached so great a thickness that the re- 
moval of the screen through the casing is found to be impossible. 
The whole casing then has to be pulled up, a new screen substi- 
tuted, and the pipe replaced, an operation costing about as much 
as a new well. 

It has been found that wells 4 inches or more in diameter 
seldom require a screen in sandy deposits (except when the pump- 
ing is severe), and their substitution for the 2-inch wells, which 
must nearly always be screened, will afford relief from incrusta- 
tion troubles in most farm wells. Wells with screens lying en- 
tirely in gravel give little trouble from incrustations compared 
with those stopping in strata in which clay is mixed with the sand 
or gravel. Where the amount of clay is comparatively small, 
prolonged pumping at the outset will remove much of it from the 
vicinity of the screen, and subsequent trouble is to a considerable 
extent avoided. Artificial pockets of gravel, etc., are sometimes 
formed about wells by introducing such material through the 
casing before the setting of the screen (Figs. 42 and 44). 



102 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



Corrosion of pipes is also frequently an irritating feature of 
driven wells, even galvanized pipes being at times attacked with 
great rapidity. The remedy is discussed in the chapter on 
Special Problems. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Jet Wells. — The chief ad- 
vantage of the jet or jetting process of sinking wells is its extreme 
rapidity, the water current and drill cooperating in loosening the 
material ahead of the casing and permitting the latter to be sunk 
more rapidly than by any other method. Wells of 400 to 500 
feet in depth are sometimes sunk, cased and cleaned in two days. 
The chief disadvantage is probably the fact that it requires a 
previous supply of water to operate, a supply that in desert 
regions is by no means always available. Other advantages and 
disadvantages are indicated below. 

Well sunk by jet process. 



Advantages. 



Rapid in soft materials; operates continuously. 

Cheap compared with hydraulic, hydraulic ro- 
tary, and drilling methods. 

Supplies inexpensive and readily obtainable. 

Adapted to incoherent materials, such as sand, 
not capable of standing alone. 

Affords fair records and samples of materials 
penetrated. 

Other advantages similar to those of driven 
wells. 



Disadvantages. 



Limited to soft materials. 

Requires more apparatus than driven wells; requires skilled 

labor. 
Requires previous supply of water. 
Small water seams not readily recognized. 

Draws from single water bed. 

Requires strong water beds due to absence of storage facili- 
ties; seeps can not be utilized. 
No storage capacity. 
Usually limited to small diameters. 
Satisfactory only in wells of moderate depth. 
Slow response to rainfall as compared to shallow dug wells. 
Corrosion and incrustation of pipes. 

Taste of water due to solution of iron by corrosive waters. 
Difficulty of cleaning. 



Location of Jet Wells. — The jetting process is particularly 
adapted to the finer types of unconsolidated deposits, such as 
sands, etc., the materials of which are easily displaced and lifted 
by the water current. It has been extensively used in the coastal 
plain deposits along the Atlantic, in many inland glacial deposits, 
and in some of the alluvial valleys of the West, especially in 
California. 

In general, the statements made as to the location of driven 
wells apply equally to jet wells, since the two forms of wells are 



DRIVEN AND JET WELLS 



103 



essentially the same after completion. The reader is referred, 
therefore, to the discussion of the wells of the former type (p. 98). 

Sinking Jet Wells. — The jet- 
ting outfit consists of an iron cas- 
ing, a drive weight for sinking the 
casing, a hollow bit attached to a 
drill pipe and working within the 
casing, a water swivel and a force 
pump for forcing water down the 
drill pipe and out through the 
drill. The smaller wells are com-, 
monly sunk by hand power as 
shown in Figure 45, but larger wells 
require masts and hoisting sheaves, 
with engines to furnish power for 
handling the pipe and operating 
the pump (Fig. 46.) ^' 



DRIVE WEIGHT ROFE 
TO HOISTING DRUM OR SPOOl. 



DRILL ROD ROPE 
TO HOISTING DRUM 



JETTING PIPE 



DRIVE WEIGHT 



•WOODEN BUFFER 
DRIVE HEAO 







Fig. 45. — Diagram showing method of sinking 
jet wells by hand. 




Fig. 46. — Diagram showing outfit and 
process of sinking deeper jet wells. 



In the smaller wells a common diameter for the casing is 2\ 
inches, while the drill pipe usually has a diameter of i inch. The 



I04 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 




water is forced downward through the drill pipe and hollow bit 
(Fig. 47), and loosens the material about the bottom of the well, 
the finer portion being carried to the surface by the current 
ascending between the drill pipe and the casing. 
The bit is turned slowly during the process to 
increase the rapidity of sinking and insure a 
straight hole. As fast as the bit advances, it is 
followed by the casing, which sometimes, as where 
a paddy or expansion drill (Fig. 48) has previ- 
ously been used to ream out a hole larger than 
Fig. 47. — Hollow bit , . . , , . . , 

used in jet process, ^he casmg, smks Under its own weight. More 

commonly, however, a drive weight (Figs. 45, 46) 
is used to force it down. The same size casing is, 
as a rule, used from top to bottom of the well. 

Hard layers are penetrated by substituting 
an ordinary drill for the hollow bit, the former 
being lifted and dropped as in the standard per- 
cussion methods. In clayey or other coherent 
materials the walls will sometime stand alone, 
and the casing may not be inserted until after 
the hole has been jetted to its full depth. Fig. 48. — Paddy or 

Depth, Size and Care of Jet Wells. — Jet -p---" bit used 

^ ' •> -f tor reaming. 

wells are usually sunk only when it is necessary 
to go less than 100 feet, but this is a limitation of practice rather 
than a limitation of possibility, for wells of the jet type have been 
successfully sunk in California to depths of over 600 feet, and by 
reducing the size of casing at a point from 500 to 600 feet below 
the surface, considerably greater depths may be attained. Com- 
mon diameters of the casings for depths up to 150 feet are 2 and 
3 inches; for wells that are to be sunk to depths of 400 to 600 
feet, 4-inch casing is most common. 

The jet wells are not usually provided with strainers, hence 
they avoid many of the troubles due to the incrustation of the 
screens. Incrustations within the pipe and corrosion of casings 
are treated as in the case of driven wells. 




CHAPTER XIV. 



DEEP WELLS. 



Types of Deep Wells. — The preceding types of wells have 
all been of comparatively simple forms requiring relatively little 
in the way of apparatus for their sinking. In many instances 
they can be sunk without special difficulty by the farmer himself 
or by local drillers. 

Types of deep wells and conditions to which they are adapted. 



Type of well. 



Description. 



Conditions to which well is best adapted. 



Standard drilled. 



Diamond-drill hole. 



Wells sunk by calyx and 
steel-shot methods. 



Wells sunk by hydraulic 
process. 



Wells sunk by hydraulic 
rotary process. 



California or stovepipe . 



Sunk by percussion of heavy drill, i| to 
12 inches or more in diameter, lifted 
and dropped from portable rig or der- 
rick by horse or steam power. Cased 
with iron pipe in soft materials; usu- 
ally not cased in rock. Drillings re- 
moved by long bucket with valve in 
bottom. 

Sunk by rotating hollow bit, usually 
Ij to 4 inches in diameter, with rim 
fitted with black diamonds. Pene- 
trates by abrasion due to rotation. 
Drillings removed by water forced 
down drill and up along outside of 
rods. 

Sunk by rotation of notched steel shoe, 
or by chilled steel shot used in con- 
nection with a rotating plain shoe of 
soft iron. Rods by which power is 
transmitted are hollow and permit 
the dropping of the shot and the en- 
trance of water, which brings up the 
cuttings as with the diamond drill. 

Sunk by lifting and dropping drill in hole 
full of water. Penetrates by percus- 
sion. Water and cuttings are forced 
into hollow rod on down stroke, being 
retained by valve. Diameter simi- 
lar to standard drilled wells. 

Sunk by rotating steel shoe, as in calyx 
method, but with the difference that 
whole pipe is turned and water is 
forced down pipe and up outside in- 
stead of through rods. Steel shot 
also sometimes used. 

Overlapping sheet -steel casings, 4 
inches or more in diameter, forced 
downwards by hydraulic jacks and 
finally perforated by a special appa- 
ratus at water strata. Drillings are 
removed by a long sand-bucket with 
valve. 



Can be used to advantage in all but the 
softest materials, but is particularly 
adapted to rock work, especially at 
great depths, being cheaper and quicker 
than other methods of drilling in rock. 



Not adapted to water wells because of 
great cost. Used where cores of mate- 
rials penetrated are required, or where 
hole is sunk at an angle with the ver- 
tical. 



Adapted to vertical work in hard rocks 
where cores are required. Cheaper 
but slower than diamond-drill 
method, and more expensive than 
standard drilled holes. Is success- 
fully used as an adjunct to hydraulic 
rotary process. 

Adapted to clays and other unconsoli- 
dated deposits and to soft rocks where 
depths are moderate and the use of a 
heavy drill is not required. 



Adapted to rapid work at considerable 
depths in materials prevailingly soft, 
but having occasional hard layers. 



Adapted to soft materials extending to 
considerable depths and having sev- 
eral water strata capable of utiliza- 
tion. 



The deep wells, on the other hand, generally require elaborate 
outfits, with trained men for their operation. Complicated prob- 
lems, far beyond the ability of the ordinary farmer to handle, are 



105 



io6 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



constantly encountered, and the services of a professional driller 
are usually essential. Detailed descriptions of the types of wells 
and technical explanation of the drilling methods would, there- 
fore, be of little value to the farm owner. 

The character of the different forms of deep wells are indicated 
in the table on page 105, together with the conditions to which 
they are best adapted. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Deep 
Wells. — All deep wells possess the advantage of drawing on 
supplies that are usually far below the limits reached by pollu- 
tion. The majority are cased through the surface soils and for 
at least several feet Into the rocks, which commonly prevents con- 
tamination from shallow sources. Furthermore, the supplies, 
though perhaps no greater than those of many relatively shallow 
wells, are likely to be more steady and less affected by droughts. 

On the other hand, deep wells are expensive to drill and the 
water is commonly more mineralized than that of shallow wells, 
although the reverse Is true In many of the alkaline regions of the • 
West, and also in localities where the shallow waters are from 
clayey or marly materials while the deep supplies are from sandy 
foundations. 

The special advantages and disadvantages of the individual 
types are brought out In the accompanying tables. 



Summary of advantages and disadvantages of different types of deep wells. 
Standard drilled wells. 



Advantages. 


Disadvantages. 


Adapted to all rocks. 




Expensive; requires elaborate outfit, skilled labor, steam 
power with the attendant charges, and costly casing and 
pumps in deeper wells. 


No ordinary limitation as to depth. 




Many difficulties in drilling; frequent losses of tools. 


Can be readily deepened. 




Cleaned with difficulty. 


Little affected by droughts. 






Can utilize all water strata where 


there is no 


Slow response to rainfall; slight storage capacity. 


great difference in head if casing is 


perforated, 




but this is rarely done. 






Pollution is completely shut out if properly cased. 


Corrosion of pipes and screens. 


Can be located anywhere. 




Incrustation of pipes and screens. 


Gives fair records of materials and water beds 


Entrance of sand through screens or clogging of screens. 


encountered. 




Taste of water due to solution of iron under certain condi- 
tions. 



DEEP WELLS 



107 



Diamond-drill holes. 



Advantages. 



Disadvantages. 



Gives complete core of rocks penetrated. 
Can be drilled at any angle. 

Other advantages similar to those of other 
drilled wells. 



Adapted only to hard rocks. 

Requires costly outfit and materials, skilled labor, steam 

power, etc. 
Cost greater than drilled wells. 

Other disadvantages similar to those of drilled wells. 



Wells sunk by calyx and steel-shot method. 



Outfit and cost of sinking less than in diamond- 
drill holes. 

Readily used in connection with hydraulic- 
rotary rig when hard rocks are encountered. 

Other advantages similar to those of drilled 
wells. 



Both outfit and cost of operation more than in drilled wells. 

Slower than diamond drilling. 

Other disadvantages similar to those of drilled wells. 



Wells sunk by hydraulic process. 



Rapid in soft materials. 

Can be used where soft and hard beds alternate, 
but works best in uniform materials. Pene- 
trates hard beds by fall of drill. 

Operation nearly continuous. 

AfTords good records. 

Other advantages similar to those of drilled 
wells. 



Usually limited to relatively small diameters. 
Requires previous supply of water for drilling process. 



Other disadvantages similar to those of drilled wells. 



Wells sunk by hydraulic rotary process. 



Very rapid in soft materials. 

Applicable to alternations of soft and hard mate- 
rial. 

Operations are relatively continuous; little lost 
time. 

Can penetrate hard beds by use of calyx appli- 
ance and chilled-steel shot. 



Other advantages similar to those of drilled 
wells. 



Satisfactory only where the materials are prevailingly soft. 

Small water seams not readily recognized; shut off by pud- 
dling by thick sludge. 

Requires previous supply of water for process of sinking 
well. 

AfTords unsatisfactory records. 

Possible for polluting matter to penetrate by passage 

through loosened zone along casing. 
Other disadvantages similar to those of drilled wells. 



Stovepipe or California wells. 



Utilization of all horizons of water. 

Cheapness of casings as compared with large- 
sized driven or drilled wells. 

Shortness of sections, permitting use of steady 
pressure by hydraulic jacks. 



Adaptability to conditions where driving is 

impossible. 
Flush outer casings and absence of screw joints. 
Ready adjustment to strains. 
Avoidance of clogging of perforations. 
Exclusion of sources of pollution. 
Affords fair records of materials and water beds 

encountered. 



Limitation to soft materials. 

Lack of strength of casing; distortion by lateral pressure; 

pulled with difficulty if distorted. 
Thinness of casing and shortness of life where waters are 

corrosive. 
Expensive; requires elaborate outfit available in only a few 

sections of country; skilled labor, etc. 
Cleaned with difficulty. 



Slight storage capacity. 

Taste of water due to solution of iron by corrosive waters. 

Short life under some conditions. 



io8 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Location of Deep Wells. — In the location of deep wells the 
chief consideration is the obtaining of a supply, slight differ- 
ences in location seldom seriously affecting the cost, while the pre- 
vailing use of casing in soft deposits insures safety from ordinary 
sources of pollution. The occurrence of deep waters depends on 
the character and structure of the rocks far below the surface. 
No indications of these features are usually found at the surface, 
and the well may as a rule be located independently of surface 
relief, though where artesian flows are expected the well should be 
located on as low ground as possible. Information as to the best 
location for a deep well may often be obtained from a careful 
study of the records of wells in adjacent regions, which can be 
made by the more experienced and intelligent drillers, or from a 
study of the rocks and their structure, which often requires the 
services of a trained geologist. 

Relation of Depth and Supply. — It is a widespread, in fact an 
almost universal, belief that the amount of water increases with 
depth and that water may be had anywhere if one only "goes 
deep enough." This is, however, far from the truth. Rainfall 
appears to be the source of at least 99 per cent of the fresh water 
found in the ground, the remainder being water included in the 
rocks at the time of their accumulation beneath the sea, to- 
gether with a small amount derived from volcanic sources. As 
would be expected from its atmospheric source, water actually de- 
creases rather than increases in amount with depth, a great many 
rocks encountered by the deeper wells and mines, especially at 
depths below 1000 feet, being entirely destitute of water. 

However, if only the more superficial portion of the crust is 
considered, there is in general an increase of water with depth. 
Except in valley bottoms and other depressions the surface soil 
and rocks, although carrying much moisture, are rarely saturated; 
but at depths which vary, according to climate, soils and topog- 
raphy, from a few to several hundred feet, a saturated zone con- 
stituting the ground-water body is encountered. Wells starting 
anywhere above drainage level will in general encounter water in 



DEEP WELLS 109 

increasing amounts at least down to the drainage level. Again, 
the surface beds may be of non-porous nature and may therefore 
be destitute of water, while the underlying beds, if porous and 
below drainage level, are likely to be saturated. 

Of course there is a constant tendency for the surface waters 
to penetrate downward and fill the porous rocks below. That 
these are at present destitute of water may be due, at least in 
certain rugged regions, to the draining of the deeper and in places 
relatively porous beds by deep valleys. Elsewhere, and this is 
doubtless the most common cause, the water is kept from per- 
colating downward by impervious beds near the surface. The 
deeper rocks are largely of the granitic type and hold but little 
water. Except where they constitute the surface rock and are 
somewhat broken by joints it is of little use to penetrate them in 
search of water. 

To speak broadly, it may be said that there is no general in- 
crease of water with depth and that the finding of deep supplies 
is entirely dependent on local geologic conditions. Unless there is 
some proof that deep water-bearing beds exist, the sinking of a 
well more than a few hundred feet in depth should be regarded 
wholly in the light of an experiment, although in sedimentary 
rocks it has the decided advantage that it may penetrate a num- 
ber of water strata, which may afford in the aggregate a fair 
supply where a single stratum might not suffice. 

Relation of Depth and Head. — The relation of head to depth 
has been discussed in connection with artesian flows (p. 58). It 
may be said that, while there is no fixed relation between the two, 
it is perhaps more common than otherwise for the deeper strata 
of the structural troughs giving rise to artesian flows to outcrop 
at higher levels than the overlying beds, although the reverse is 
often true. In many structural basins, the water-bearing beds 
rise toward the rims and outcrop in plateaus or other elevations 
high above the low plains over the center of the basins. 

Relation of Depth and Quality. — Another prevailing idea is 
that the deeper waters are purer. Within limitations this is gen- 



no DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

erally true as regards the shallower waters, which, being close to 
the surface and without the protection afforded by overlying clays 
or other impervious beds, are susceptible to pollution. Deeper 
waters, on the other hand, are almost always overlain by rela- 
tively impervious beds that serve to keep out polluting materials, 
and as a rule they are entirely safe. In many places, however, 
the amount of mineral matter dissolved in the water shows a 
general increase with depth, the amount in deep waters averaging 
several times that in surface waters, which are largely made up of 
recent rainfall. There are some exceptions to this law, due mainly 
to variations in the character of the materials in which the waters 
are found, the waters in a calcareous glacial drift or in an alkaline 
flat, for instance, often being very much harder than those in un- 
derlying beds. Limestone waters, too, are generally harder than 
sandstone waters. The maxim of certain drillers, "The harder 
the rock the harder the water," is based on the prevailing softness 
of the sandstones in many districts as compared to the hardness 
of the limestones. 

Summary Statement. — Contrary to the common belief, there 
is no general increase in the volume of underground water with 
increase in depth, such gain in volume as is occasionally found 
being due to peculiar local conditions. Neither is there a univer- 
sal increase of head, although it may happen because the lower 
beds outcrop at higher altitudes than the upper ones (Fig. 32). 
The deeper waters, however, are generally safer than those near 
the surface, although their mineral content is likely to be higher. 

Protection of Deep Wells. — Many of the conditions favorable 
to pollution of the shallow wells likewise favor the contamination 
of deep wells, but as the causes and remedies have already been 
discussed, especially in connection with the section on "Safety 
distance," they do not require further consideration at this point. 

The water of deep wells when first encountered is usually safe 
and rightfully has a good reputation, so that people often go to 
great expense in drilling for deep rock waters. Unfortunately, 
however, many fail to realize that unless care is taken, it is possible 



DEEP WELLS 



III 



Casing 
















Li mest one 
1 1 


















Fig. 49. — Diagram showing danger of pollu- 
tion where casing is carried only to rock. 



for deep wells to become polluted by the entrance of surface 
waters. In regions where the rock is within a few feet of the 
surface, for instance, the casing may be carried only to the rock, 
the fact that pollution can 
enter the well through the 
rock crevices being entirely 
overlooked. (See Fig. 49.) 
The chief precaution neces- 
sary against this danger is 
to carry the casing to a suffi- 
cient depth to shut off all sur- 
face waters entering through 
fissures. It is hard to say 
how deep it must be carried 
to remove all danger of con- 
tamination, but the crevices 
are usually limited to the up- 
per part of the rock (Fig. 49), 

and every additional foot of casing gives additional safety. Ten 
feet of casing in the rock would materially reduce the danger, 
while 25 feet would in most wells probably insure safety. The 
safest plan, however, is to carry the casing from the surface down 
to the water-bearing seam. The casing should always be set with 
a tight joint at the bottom to prevent the entrance into the well 
of surface waters that find their way downward along the outside 
of the pipe. 

Again, it is not unusual to drill new wells in the bottom of old 
dug wells and to allow the polluted surface waters to mingle with 
the pure rock waters. 

Many towns situated on rock surfaces and using unprotected 
wells of the type mentioned have been visited by epidemics of 
typhoid fever, cholera and other diseases, leading to the loss of 
many lives. 

Another source of pollution, less common and possibly less 
dangerous than the preceding, arises from the fact that many 



112 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

casings are left open at the top, even when care has been taken to 
carry them to proper depths. Figure 51 shows a casing properly- 
protected, all openings being hermetically sealed by cement. 

A fourth and very common means of contamination of deep 
wells is by leaks in the casing due to imperfect joints or to cor- 
rosion. The process of corrosion may be very rapid, the pipe in 
some wells with acid chalybeate waters lasting only a few years. 
No one expects a pipe laid in the ground near the surface to last 
many years, yet many seem to think that a well casing will last 
indefinitely. Unfortunately, this is far from true. 

When the casing has been corroded, pollution from sources 
near the surface is often admitted through the minute holes eaten 
in the iron, spoiling the deep waters. Where the casing does not 
entirely fill the hole, contamination may pass down outside of it, 
while in uncased rock wells pollution may enter through any of 
the numerous fissures that usually exist in the upper part of the 
rocks. Even in such wells, however, the danger of contamina- 
tion decreases rapidly with depth. 

The detection of leaks is somewhat difficult. In some wells, 
however, water may be heard trickling in or may be seen by a 
light ray projected down the well by a mirror when the pump is 
withdrawn. The admixture of water from outside sources may 
sometimes be detected by a change in the hardness of the well 
water, by an earthy taste or taste of decayed vegetation, or by a 
cloudiness due to silt brought in by superficial waters. 

The remedy is usually to pull the old casing and replace it by 
a new one, the length of time the pipe is allowed to remain before 
replacement being determined by an estimate of its life based on 
the action of the water on the pump tube or other pipes. An alter- 
native treatment sometimes employed when the leak is near the 
surface is to set a packer designed for the purpose in the space 
between the bottom of the pump tube and the casing and fill the 
space above with cement. 



CHAPTER XV. 
SPECIAL PROBLEMS. 

Shooting. — The practice of "shooting" — exploding a charge 
of nitroglycerine or other explosive in a well — has long been suc- 
cessfully employed in the oil regions, and has in late years been 
used to increase the flow of water wells, in which dynamite is 
more commonly used. The action of the dynamite is to shatter 
the surrounding rock, with the result that connection is fre- 
quently established with other crevices, in some wells largely 
increasing the water supply. The dynamite is most effective in 
hard, brittle rocks, such as limestone, which are as a rule com- 
pletely shattered by the explosion, and is least effective in soft 
tough shales, which are bent and compressed rather than broken. 

Use of Steam Jet. — Shooting, owing to the character of the 
materials, is not usually practiced in unconsolidated deposits, in 
which the steam jet is sometimes used instead of dynamite. The 
steam is forced down a small pipe inside a larger one and, com- 
ing into contact with the water at the bottom, turns it quickly 
into steam, the resulting explosion loosening the material or mak- 
ing a pocket about the bottom of the pipe. Where the materials 
are dense and clayey the action of the steam jet may considerably 
increase the influx of water; in the more porous deposits it has 
less effect. 

Screening the WeU. — Wherever the well is sunk in uncon- 
solidated materials in which the grains are small enough to be 
moved by the water entering the well, the use of some sort of 
screen is essential. The method of forming a natural screen by 
pumping the finer particles from amongst the coarser materials at 
the bottom of the well, of inserting and packing gravel about the 
lower end of the pipe, and the nature and use of the common 



114 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



well-point type of screen have already been described 
chapter on driven wells. Other screens, the use of which 
limited to driven wells, are described below. 

One of the most common forms of 
screen consists of an ordinary iron pipe 
perforated with quarter-inch holes placed 
about 2 inches apart, the whole being 
wound with iron wire. The closeness of 
the winding is dependent upon the fineness 



in the 
is not 





a b 

Fig. 50. — Well strainers: a, Layne strainer; h, Cook strainer. 

of the material in which the water is found. Some of the screens 
of this type are as much as a hundred feet long. 

Many waters, such as those of considerable areas of the lower 
Mississippi valley, rapidly attack all forms of iron or galvanized 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS 115 

iron casings. In such instances, perforated wooden pipe wound 
with iron wire is often used. 

In the CaHfornia or stovepipe type of wells the casing itself 
serves as a screen. In drilling, a record of water-bearing strata 
is kept, and, on completion, a perforator is lowered into the pipe 
and vertical slits are cut in the thin sheet-steel casing at the desired 
points. Practically the entire length of casing is sometimes con- 
verted to a screen where the well is in a continuous water-bearing 
stratum. 

In clayey materials, quicksands, etc., one of the several types 
of patented screens or strainers is commonly used. The Layne 
strainer (Fig. 50 a) consists of a perforated tube wound with metal 
strips (or wire) of triangular cross section, fiat side outward, the 
exterior presenting a flat surface to the sand, reducing the danger 
of clogging and prolonging the life of the well. The Cook strainer, 
another popular form (Fig. 50 b), consists of a seamless brass tube 
cut with horizontal slits of varying widths to suit different ma- 
terials. The outside of the pipe is smooth, but the slits expand 
towards the inside to permit the free entrance of water while re- 
ducing the possibility of clogging to a minimum. 

Setting the Casing. — In water wells of the drilled type ex- 
tending into rock it is almost always desirable to make a tight 
joint between the casing and the rock, either at the surface of 
the latter or a few feet lower down, the object being to prevent 
the entrance into the well of surface waters or polluting matter. 

Many drillers count on securing a water-tight contact with 
the rock by simply driving the casing firmly against the surface, 
but it is needless to say that the efficacy of such a contact is not to 
be relied upon. To secure a tight contact the size of the hole 
should be reduced by substituting a smaller bit. This results in 
the formation of tapering walls at the point of change, against 
which the casing may be firmly set. 

''Casing Off." — Where a stratum of caving materials is pen- 
etrated or where a flow of objectionable water is encountered it 
must be "cased off." Since casing from the surface to the point 



ii6 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

of danger would not only be expensive but would also often shut 
off desirable water supplies, the size of the hole is reduced and 
a short section of casing (just long enough for the purpose) is 
lowered into the hole and set as described in the preceding 
paragraph. Sometimes several strata have to be thus cased off, 
the size of the hole being necessarily decreased each time, since 
the drill in further work must be operated through the smaller 
pipe. 

Packing. '■ — Racking consists in forming a water-tight joint be- 
tween the outside of the casing and the rock, and is necessary to 
prevent the water from passing upward along the outside of the 
casing, or to prevent the shallower and perhaps contaminating 
water from being drawn downward along the casing into the well. 

Formerly flaxseed was extensively used, bags being placed at 
the points where the casings were to be set. The drill was then 
lowered on the bag, breaking it apart and forcing the seeds into 
the opening between the pipe and the rock where, in contact with 
the water, they rapidly expanded and closed the opening. 

Cement and asphalt have also been used, but have not been 
found satisfactory in this country. Here rubber packers, made 
in a great variety of forms and sizes especially for the purpose, 
have been found to be most economical and effective. Several 
forms are so constructed that they may be removed, brought to 
the surface for examination, and later reset at will. 

Plugging. — Plugging means the complete obstruction of the 
well by the insertion of some material or apparatus designed for 
the purpose. Wells are usually plugged to prevent objectionable 
supplies of water, oil, etc., from entering below the higher and 
better supplies which It is desired to use. The nature of the 
plug used In water wells Is not greatly different from that used in 
oil wells, which in Ohio Is defined by law as "a dry wooden plug 
not less than three feet in length, equal to the diameter of the 
hole." Over this, according to the same statute, there must be 
placed "at least seven feet of sediment or drillings, or cement 
and sand." 



SPECIAL PROBLEMS 117 

Corrosion of Casings. — Many waters attack casings with great 
rapidity and destroy them in the course of a few years, some- 
times even within a few months, although other casings may last 
for 10 to 20 years. In general it has been found that the waters 
attacking the casings most rapidly are those which are highest In 
carbon dioxide. Such waters attack zinc as well as Iron and the 
use of galvanized pipes affords little relief. Block-tin has been 
occasionally substituted, but sometimes even this has been eaten 
through, although It is ordinarily little affected by water. In 
places, relief has been obtained only when wooden pipe has been 
substituted, although the life of such piping is short and Its 
use is otherwise objectionable. Of the Iron pipes, the common 
" black iron " type seems to give the least trouble. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
COST OF DRILLING AND CASING. 

Variability of Cost of Wells. — As pointed out on another page 
(p. 74) the cost of wells is exceedingly variable in different parts 
of the country, the prices charged depending almost entirely on 
local conditions. Where the conditions that the driller is to en- 
counter in sinking a well are definitely known, the price is almost 
invariably lower than where wells are drilled in new territory. 
Thus, in many of the drift regions of Michigan, where the driller 
has learned by experience that the materials to be penetrated 
are likely to present no obstacles to driving, he will in many in- 
stances sink a 50-foot well and equip it with a pump for $15. In 
Massachusetts, where the driller is less familiar with the con- 
ditions, $1 a foot is often charged for a well drilled in precisely 
the same type of materials. 

In the oil regions, wells are frequently sunk in the shales and 
sandstones for 75 to 90 cents a foot, although elsewhere $3 a 
foot is often considered a fair price for drilling in shale. In 
granite, the cost commonly varies from $3 to $10 a foot, while 
the usual charge for wells in limestone is from $.50 to $2 a foot. 

Cost of Casing. — The cost of casing, like that of drilling, is 
quite variable, changing from week to week, according to the 
quotation for iron, and differing greatly according to length of 
railroad transportation, haulage, etc. 

The smallest size pipes, such as are used in driven wells, com- 
monly range in size from i to 2 inches and in cost from 10 to 
20 cents per foot. Four-inch casings usually cost from 40 
to 50 cents a foot, while for larger sizes the price increases 
about 20 cents a foot for each increase of an inch in diameter, 
or up to $2 a foot for a 12-inch casing. 

The casing used in wells sunk by the California or stovepipe 

method are of riveted steel and come in 2-foot lengths. The 

prices range from about 35 cents per foot for 4-inch casing up to 

$1 for 1 0-inch casing, varying somewhat with the thickness. 

118 



COST OF DRILLING AND CASING 



119 



Cost Table for Wells. — The following table indicates in some- 
what more detail the prices charged for sinking wells in different 
localities and in varying materials. 



Cost of Wells. 



Type. 



Material. 



Diam- 
eter. 



Locality. 



Remarks. 



Cost per 
foot. 



Open (dug) 

Open (dug) 
Open 

(blasted) 
Driven 
Driven 

Driven 

Driven 

Bored (hand) 

Bored (hand) 

Bored (power) 

Bored (power) Clay, etc. 



Unconsolidated 

Unconsolidated 
Rock 

Sand, etc. 
Sand, etc. 

Sand, etc. 
Sand, etc. 
Clay, etc. 
Clay, etc. 
Clay, etc. 



Punched 
Jet 

Jet 
Jet 

Hydraulic ro- 
tary 



Hydraulic ro- 
tary. 



California or 
stovepipe 



Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Standard per- 
cussion 

Standard per- 
cussion. 

Diamond 
(core) 



Clay, etc. 
Sands 

Sands 
Sands 

Coastal plain de- 
posits. Alter- 
nating hard 
and soft lay- 
ers. 

Coastal plain de- 
posits. Alter- 
nating hard 
and soft lay- 
ers. 

Sand, gravel, 
etc. 



Shale 

Soft shale 

Hard shale 

Sandstone 

Sandstone 

Limestone 

Granite 

Granite 

Granite 

Trap 

Quartzite 

Moderately 
hard rocks. 



Inches. 
36-60 



36 
36? 



ii-3 



3-4 

6 

6 

6-36 

4-6 
4 

2-3? 

2-4 

6-8 



6-8 



6-8 
6 
6 
6 
8 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 



Various 

Connecticut 
Maine 

Michigan 
Iowa and Minne- 
sota 
Massachusetts 
Connecticut 
Arkansas 
Arkansas 
Arkansas 
Iowa, etc. 

Arkansas 
Arkansas and 

California 
Louisiana 
California 

Arkansas 



Texas 



California 



Pennsylvania. 

Maine 

Maine 

Connecticut 

Connecticut 

Mississippi val- 
ley 
Maine 

Connecticut 

Connecticut 

Washington 

Minnesota 

Various 



Price varies greatly with diameter, 
depth, and character of curbing. 

Average of 32 wells. 

Price applies only to relatively shal- 
low wells. 

Price including casing. 

Price including casing. 

Price including casing. 

Average of many wells. 

Curbing not included. 

Curbing not included. 

Curbing not included. 

Prices are for slight depths, casing not 
included. 

Curbing not included. 

Price is for 400-600-foot wells. Casing 
not included. 

Shallow. Casing not included. 

Less than 100 feet. Casing not in- 
cluded. 

Depths of 400 to 1000 feet. Includes 
casing. 



Depths of 400 to 1000 feet. Includes 
casing. 



Casing not included. 



Casing not included. Depths under 

1000 feet. 
Casing not included. Depths usually, 

under 300 feet. 
Casing not included. Depths usually 

under 300 feet. 
Average cost without casing. 

Average cost without casing. 

Casing not included. 

Casing not included. 

Common range without casing. 

Average without casing. 

Casing not included. 

Average without casing. 

Common cost. Prices much higher 
for hard rock and deep borings. 



i62.oo-,1no.oo 

$3.10 
$4.00 

So.35-$o.75 
$o,S0-$o.75 

$1.00 
$0.70 
$o.2S-$o.33 
$o.sc 

$O.I2-$0.40 

$o.5o-|i.oo 

fc.i5-$o.So 
$1.00 

I0.39 
$o.30-$o.40 

$2.50-85.00 



o. 30-. 65 for 
first 100 
feet, with 
increase of 

o- 25-0. 35 a 
foot for 
every so 
feet. 

S0.75-S1.00 



S2.5o-$4.5o 

$2.00 

$2.75 
lo.50-Sl.oc 

$3.00-86.00 
$2 . 50-S8 . 00 

$4. 25 

$2.25-83.00 

$3.00-84.00 

$1.50-5=2.50 



CHAPTER XVII. 
METHODS OF RAISING WATER. 

Common Methods. — Leaving out of account the natural 
flowing or true artesian wells, the supplies from which are seldom 
pumped, water is commonly brought to the surface by some one 
of the several forms of buckets, by various types of pumps, or by 
the so-called air lift process. To a certain extent, the method of 
lifting the water is directly dependent upon the nature of the well 
and the supply demanded. 

The ordinary chain pump, for instance, can be used only in 
open wells of large diameter where only limited quantities of 
water are required. The valve-buckets are suited only to wells 
of from 4 to 8 inches in diameter where the quantity demanded 
is small. Suction pumps are satisfactory only in wells where the 
water is 25 feet or less from the surface. Deep well pumps can 
be operated satisfactorily in tubular wells of all sizes over 2 
inches in diameter, provided the volume to be lifted per minute 
is not high. Air lifts are suited to the larger sizes of cased wells 
in which the volume per minute to be lifted is very large. 

Buckets. — The "old oaken bucket" needs no description. 
Attached to the long sweep, once so picturesque a feature of 
rural landscape of New England, or to the most prosaic windlass 
(Fig. 34), it is familiar to every one, and will long hold its own in 
popular favor in the older and more conservative portions of the 
country. Nevertheless, since its use prevents the proper pro- 
tection of the well from the entrance of the dust, animals, etc., 
it is objectionable and should be replaced by tight coverings and 
pumps wherever possible. 

The valve-bucket (Fig. 35) commonly has. the form of a 
metallic cylinder, usually of galvanized iron, provided with a valve 

120 



METHODS OF RAISING WATER 121 

at the bottom which permits the entrance of water when the 
bucket is lowered, but which shuts and prevents its escape on 
being hfted. Its use is confined almost entirely to wood-curbed, 
bored and punched wells. The diameter is just enough smaller 
than the inside diameter of the curbing to permit it to be raised 
and lowered without undue friction. There is nothing inherently 
objectionable in the bucket itself, though the open top and, the 
wooden curb with which it is associated are to be condemned. 

Chain pumps. — The so-called chain pump consists of an end- 
less chain passing over a sprocket wheel at the top, and running 
through a wooden tube. The chain is equipped at short intervals 
with rubber or metal disks. On turning the handle attached to 
the sprocket, it is made to revolve, the water being lifted by 
the tightly fitting disks as they pass upward through the tube. 
Much has been claimed of this type of pump because of the 
aeration of the water produced by the descending disks, but it is 
very doubtful if the slight aeration brought about is of any 
material importance. The pumps of this type are commonly en- 
closed, so that their use is attended by relatively little risk of 
pollution, provided the well is otherwise properly protected. 
They are best adapted to shallow wells and cisterns, since the 
weight of the water in the tube in the deeper wells is consider- 
able. Their cost with wooden curbs varies from ^2.50 to ^3.50, 
according to the depth of the well; with steel curbs the costs 
average 50 per cent more. 

Suction Pumps. — ^ There are several forms of suction pumps, 
the most common of which is the familiar ''pitcher pump," so 
named from the resemblance to a pitcher suggested by its shape 
(Figs. 51, 52). Theoretically it will lift a column of water equal in 
weight to the atmospheric pressure, or about 32 feet, but in prac- 
tice it is difficult to lift water by a pump of this type if it lies 
more than 25 feet below the cylinder. Its effective range can be in- 
creased, however, by sinking the pump cylinder below the surface 
of the ground. When the depth of the water is only 30 or 35 
feet from the surface the cylinder is often placed at the bottom of 



122 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 




an excavated pit from 5 to lo feet in depth, afterwards filled in or 
covered by a platform to prevent freezing. When the water is 

at greater depths the 
pump cylinder must 
be lowered inside the 
outer casing until 
within working dis- 
tance of the supply. 
The price of pitcher 
pumps ranges from ^i to ^2.50. Wooden suc- 
tion pumps cost from ^^2.75 to ^3.25, or, if 
porcelain-lined, from ^3.25 to ^4.00. 

When suction pipes are used in connection 
with open wells it is common to fit the bot- 
tom of the suction pipe with a strainer and 
"foot-valve" as an aid in preventing the re- 
turn of the water to the well. Such a valve 
is a great help in keeping the pump primed 
and preventing the water from ''running off." 
A small hole is often drilled in the pipe above 
the depressed cylinder to permit the water to 
escape and prevent freezing. 

A special form of pump, provided with an 
air chamber inserted between the pump-cylin- 



^ 



sv. 



SP 



suction valve; 
plunger valve. 



Fig. 51. — Diagram of 
suction pump. S P, 
suction pipe; S V, ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^g|j^ jg ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ SUCtion 

pipe is very long for the purpose of lessening 

the strains. 
Deep Well Pumps. — The term deep well pump is commonly 
applied to any form of pump used when the water is below suction 
depth (Fig. 53). In the smaller wells, which are usually of the 
driven type and about 2 inches in diameter, a valve is set in the 
pipe just above the screen and below water level, while the plun- 
ger works in the casing itself immediately above the valve (Fig. 54). 
In larger wells the pump-cylinder, with a suction pipe below and 
a delivery pipe above, is lowered inside the casing. At times this 




Fig. 52. — Properly protected dug well with pitcher pump. (Photo by U. S. Geological 

Survey.) 




Fig. 53. — Properly protected drilled well with deep well pump. (Photo by U. S. 

Geological Survey.) 

(12^) 



METHODS OF RAISING WATER 



125 



-Casing 
■Pump rod 



■Valve of 
plunger 

■Valve 



"tubular" 



•casing 

■Pump pipe 
■Pump rod 



Q 



Pump cylinder 
■Valve of plunger 

-Valve 
•Water level 

•Suction pipe 



is placed below the water level, but is frequently just above it 

(Fig. 54). In very deep wells the pump cylinders are placed below 

water at the maximum depth to 

which it is lowered by pumping and 

are heavy and strongly constructed 

to withstand the considerable strain 

placed upon them. Ordinary forms 

of deep well or lift pumps cost from 

^3 to ^4 when operated by hand, 

and from ^3.50 to ^5.00 when fitted 

for operation by windmills. 

Force Pumps. — Force pumps 
not only raise the water from the 
well, but lift it to tanks or other 
containers, often at considerable 
heights above the pump. There 
are many forms of force pumps, 
but they are all modifications either 
of the common suction or of the 
deep well pump. The chief differ- 
ence from the shallow well pumps 
lies in the use of pipes running to 
elevated tanks in place of open 
spouts. This necessitates either a 
solid plunger or a stuffing box at 
the top of the pump cylinder to prevent the escape of water, and 
in most cases an air chamber is attached to equalize the pressure, 
prevent strains and to give a continuous discharge. Simple forms 
of force pumps (often without air chamber) may be had from 
^5 to ^6, if to be operated by hand, or from ^6,50 to ^10, if to 
be operated by windmills. 

Two of the most common forms of force pumps are shown in 
Figs. 55 and 56. 

In the common house force pump, where the lift is very slight, 
the air chamber is often omitted, and a valve provided to allow 
the water to escape or force it to a tank as desired. 



INDEPENDENT 
PUMP 



Fig. 54. 



— Common arrangements of 
deep well pumps. 




Fig. 55. — Common form of force pump. S P, solid plunger; S V, suction valve; 
C V, check valve; A C, air chamber; D P, discharge pipe. 




Fig. 56. — Common form of force pump. S V, suction valve; P V, plunger valve; 
S B, stufifing box; A C, air chamber; D P, discharge pipe. 
(126) 



METHODS OF RAISING WATER 



127 



ir\ 



AC 



The so-called siphon force pump, shown In Fig. 57, Is used 
when the pump is not located over the source of supply, which 
may be from a well or river or 
other water-body from 100 to 500 
feet away. 

Rotary Pumps. — In rotary 
pumps the water Is lifted by the 
suction of two revolving runners 
with blades rotating in opposite 
directions within a casing (the 
rotation being at the rate of 100 
to 200 revolutions per minute), 
and forced by the same rotation 
to desired heights up to about 
75 feet. Simple forms, lifting 
15 to 40 gallons a minute, 
may be had at from ^7.50 to 
^25. 

Centrifugal Pumps. — These 
are somewhat similar to the ro- 
tary types, except there is only 
a single revolving runner. Inas- 
much as the single runner will 
not at the start usually create 

sufficient vacuum to lift the water, this form of pump must first 
be primed. When the pump Is working, the water, lifted by 
suction, Is driven Into a discharge pipe leading from the cylinder 
on a tangent. It is probably better adapted to pumping from 
trenches or streams than from wells, its great advantage being 
that sand, stones, and other debris of considerable size will pass 
through the pump without Injuring it. 

Air Lift. — This Is a very efficient system of lifting water and 
deserves wider use than it now has. The method consists of 
forcing compressed air through a small pipe Inserted within the 
casing. Emerging from the pipe at or near the bottom of the 




Fig. 57. — Siphon force pump; I, suction 
pipe; SV, suction valve; P V, plunger 
valve; A C, air chamber; C V, check 
valve; O, outlet or discharge pipe. 



128 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



Air I 
pump F 



Natural head ) 



Water 



I 



J^----^Water 



Fig. 58. — Diagram showing 
principle of air lift. 



well, the only escape for the air is upward between the air- 
pipe and the casing. As it rises, the water is carried along with 

it and is forced out at the top of the well 
(Fig. 58). 

The effectiveness of the method is 
greatest when the water normally reaches 
within a few feet of the surface and de- 
creases as the level of the water becomes 
lower. When the water in the well stands 
less than half way to the top, the air lift 
can not be used to advantage. 

Hydraulic Rams. — While the methods 
of raising water previously described all 
require some form of power, either man- 
ual or mechanical, the hydraulic ram has 
the advantage of utilizing the water itself 
as its motive force. Its use, however, is 
necessarily limited to artesian wells of 
considerable head or to flowing wells or springs so situated that 
a material fall is available for operating the ram. In case of 
flowing wells the common practice is to connect the supply pipes 
leading to the rams directly with the casings; at springs the 
water is impounded in small reservoirs from which it is led 
through a strainer and supply pipe to the ram. 

Only a few feet of head are necessary to operate such a ram, 
and if a sufficient supply is available it offers a very satisfac- 
tory means of raising the water. There is, however, always a 
very large loss. When the height to which the water is raised is 
only twice as great as the head, the efficiency may be as high as 
86 per cent, but in raising it to higher points the efficiency rapidly 
decreases. When it is raised a distance equal to ten times the 
head the efficiency is only 54 per cent; when it is raised more 
than 25 times the height of the head the proportion of water 
pumped becomes small compared with that wasted. The wear 
and tear on the ram is also considerable when the head is over 



METHODS OF RAISING WATER 129 

10 feet. The ram, therefore, is most useful when operated with 
heads of less than 10 feet, and where the water is not to be raised 
more than 250 feet. Higher heads, however, than that indicated 
have been used with satisfactory results in some cases. 

Given a flowing well or spring with a few feet of head and a 
moderate yield, this appliance can frequently be successfully used 
to lift an adequate supply of water to a house and barn at a con- 
siderably higher level. With 5 feet of head at the ram the water 
may be conveniently raised to about 30 feet, while with large 
rams and favorable conditions of head and volume water can be 
carried as much as half a mile and lifted 200 feet. The length of 
the supply pipe should be at least 30 or 40 feet to give the most 
efficient results. An actual test on a small ram costing $g, with 
70 feet of supply pipe and 12 feet of fall, showed that with 2.1 
gallons per minute furnished to the ram, 0.3 gallon was delivered 
through 100 feet of pipe at a height of 50 feet above the ram. 
The only cost of operating is that of repairs. 

Turbines. — Turbines, like rams, may be successfully used to 
lift a portion of the waters that operate them. Besides having a 
higher efficiency, which on experimental trial has been found to 
be as high as 80 per cent and can generally be depended upon to 
equal 75 per cent, the turbine has the advantage over the ram in 
not having to depend for its power upon the water which it is de- 
sirable to raise. Water power from a stream may be utilized to 
work a turbine, which, however, may lift not the water from the 
streams but from some other source, such as a deep well. Any 
fall up to 1 ,000 feet or more can be used to advantage and water 
may be drawn from any depth and raised to almost any desirable 
elevation. 

Power for Pumping. — Windmills, gasoline engines, hot air 
engines, steam engines and electric motors are all successfully 
used in pumping water, but the situation of the farm and the 
relatively small volumes that are to be raised will commonly rule 
out all but the first two forms of power. 

On large portions of the western plains, where the winds blow 



130 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

fairly continuously and with some velocity, windmills are often a 
satisfactory source of power, although even here it is often neces- 
sary to provide large storage tanks or other reservoirs to tide over 
periods of calm or light winds. The windmill is most satisfactory 
when the water does not have to be lifted through any great 
height, and fails (because of insufficient power) in very deep wells 
when the water is far below the surface. 

In most cases where windmills are inexpedient, gasoline en- 
gines will be found the most satisfactory source of power for 
pumping. Gasoline is fairly cheap, easily obtainable and highly 
efficient, while the fact that the engine may be started at a 
moment's notice whenever water is required makes its use second 
to none in convenience. 




Fig. 59. — Windmill supplying water pocket. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 




Fig. 60. — Artesian or flowing well. (Photo by U. S. Geological Survey.) 



131 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS. 

Wells, although of almost infinite variety of type and con- 
struction, are seldom distinguished by any marked departure, 
either in characteristics or behavior, from the normal. Occasion- 
ally, however, they exhibit peculiarities of a striking and puzzling 
character. Among the most common of these anomalous phe- 
nomena are the fluctuations of head, the variation in yield of 
flowing wells with changes of weather, the roillness of the waters 
during storms, the blowing, sucking and breathing of wells, and 
the freezing of the wells at points far below the surface. 

Fluctuations of Head. — The ordinary variations of head, or 
the level to which the water rises in a well, depend on perfectly 
simple and well-known factors, such as variation in rainfall, melt- 
ing of snow upon the surface, thawing of frozen ground, etc., all 
of which affect the supply of water penetrating the soil and reach- 
ing the wells. There is, however, another class of fluctuations of 
less frequent occurrence and of more obscure origin. In such 
fluctuations the water level rises and falls periodically, commonly 
standing lowest at about lo a.m. and 9 p.m. and highest at about 
3 A.M. and 4 P.M., but fluctuating much more widely during the 
passage of storms, the water rising on their approach and sub- 
siding as they pass aw^ay. The daily variations are commonly 
under an inch, but the fluctuations marking the progress of storms 
often amount to several inches. Some wells that must be pumped 
during fair weather flow freely during storms. 

Variations in Yield. — Where the head of the water in a tubular 
well is just sufficient to bring it to the top, the well is often very 
sensitive to changes of weather. A few wells flow at fixed hours, 
as at about 3 o'clock in the morning or at approximately 4 o'clock 

133 



134 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

in the afternoon, while a considerable number flow only during 
storms. Others, though flowing constantly, have their yield 
greatly augmented at such times, the effect being especially 
marked in wells of large diameter whose head is ordinarily barely 
sufficient to overflow the pipe. In such wells the discharge may 
be increased fifty or one hundred per cent or even more during 
the passage of marked weather disturbances. The increase of 
flow under such conditions is probably a universal phenomenon, 
though in copiously flowing wells of high head it is often inap- 
preciable. 

Roiliness of Well Waters. — Most wells normally yield clear 
water. In isolated cases, however, the water, which is ordinarily 
clear, becomes cloudy or milky on the approach of storms, and 
more rarely turns to a yellowish or reddish color under the same 
conditions. Examination shows the milkiness to be due to the 
presence. of a slight amount of suspended silt or clay, and the yel- 
low and red colors to fine particles of iron oxide held in suspension, 

Blowing Wells. — Wells that emit currents of air from their 
mouths are called blowing wells. Blowing is not confined to 
drilled wells, but is noted in many dug wells, the air escaping 
through cracks or other openings in the covers. It was reported 
to the writer that the current passing out through the knot hole 
in the cover of one well was strong enough to lift a hat several feet 
into the air. At some times the whistling of the escaping air 
through the planks or pipes can be heard for several rods; at 
other times the current is strong enough to operate small whistles 
whose sound is loud enough to be heard for a mile or more in 
still weather. In some wells a dull roaring sound is heard as the 
air rushes through the casing; in other wells the air can be heard 
bubbling through the water. 

Breathing Wells. — In most blowing wells the blowing is not 
continuous but alternates with sucking; such wells are more 
properly known as breathing wells. Probably most of the 
"barometer" or "weather" wells are of this class, although the 
indraft is usually less rapid and less conspicuous than the outdraft, 



PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS 135 

and in warm climates, where freezing never occurs, may be 
overlooked. Its presence is, however, abundantly demon- 
strated. Even- if no indraft is observed, it is noted that the 
blowing is weak or ceases at times, so that there is a rhythm in the 
movement of the air. In humid regions the blowing is, as a rule, 
most marked before rain storms, and the sucking or indraft of air 
occurs in clearing weather after a storm. In other words, the 
blowing occurs during periods of low barometer and the indraft 
occurs in periods of high barometer. The blowing may be asso- 
ciated with some particular direction of the wind, as would be ex- 
pected from the fact that the direction of the wind in rain storms 
is dififerenL from that prevailing in clear weather. Some wells 
show fluctuations with very small changes of barometric pressure, 
even with the diurnal changes, blowing at times of low pressure, 
as at 3 A.M. and 4 p.m., and sucking at times of high pressure at 
10 A.M. and 9 P.M. In some wells there is a noticeable " lag" in 
the phenomena, the blowing and sucking continuing an hour or 
more after the limits indicated. 

Sucking Wells. — Wells that suck in air at times are common, 
but those with continuous indrafts are very rare. Two such 
"sucking" wells have, however, been reported in Tertiary lime- 
stone near Boston, in southern Georgia. Where indraft alter- 
nates with outdraft the movement has a direct relation to baro- 
metric changes, but where the indraft is continuous no such 
relation is observed, the phenomena apparently being independ- 
ent of barometric pressure. In the wells noted above the air 
is sucked in by streams of water running in caverns in the 
rock. 

Freezing of Wells. — Throughout many of the Northern states 
much trouble is caused by the freezing of wells, not so much with 
the shallow dug wells as with the deeper drilled ones. Many wells 
in the North can be kept in use during the winter only with the 
greatest difficulty, so that the determination of the cause of the 
freezing and of means for its prevention is of great practical 
importance. 



136 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

In open wells, Including in this class the dug wells not provided 
with covers, the cold air — often many degrees below zero — is 
free to enter and displace the air of the wells, which, owing to its 
contact with the water and the unfrozen earth, is generally con- 
siderably warmer. Under such conditions, although the tem- 
perature of the entering air is somewhat modified by mixture with 
that already in the well and by contact with the walls, freezing 
often occurs at considerable depths, and the well is rendered use- 
less during the continuance of cold weather. 

In dug wells protected by covers there is generally little 
trouble from the freezing of the water unless it happens to stand 
very near the surface. Although few well coverings are tight 
enough to exclude the cold air, it penetrates so slowly that the 
temperature in the well, owing to the warmth given off by the 
earth and the ground water, seldom reaches the freezing point. 
In some wells, however, where open, water-free gravels occur above 
water level, much trouble is experienced. 

In the simpler type of driven wells, consisting of a single con- 
tinuous casing or of double tubes, both of which are carried below 
the ground-water level, little or no trouble is caused by the freez- 
ing of the water in the well, except, perhaps, when its level is very 
near the surface. The amount of cold air entering through the 
pump is insignificant, and there is no material circulation of air 
in the surrounding materials, and, therefore, no adequate cause 
for freezing. 

Most of the wells subject to freezing are drilled or double- 
tube driven wells in which the inner or pump tube is carried be- 
low the outer casing, stopping in some porous stratum (Fig. 62), 
or wells drilled in limestone or other rocks that contain open solu- 
tion passages (Fig. 64). The cause of freezing in these wells is 
discussed on pp. 138-139. 

Pumps are certain to freeze if the cylinders are near the sur- 
face, as the water left in the valves and box after pumping freezes 
before it can drain back into the well. Where the cylinder is 
placed at a considerable depth, however, this difficulty is avoided, 



PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS 137 

except In what are known as the drilled wells, just noted. It is 
therefore a common practice to set the cylinder at as great a depth 
as possible and where practicable to surround it with tightly 
packed earth to shut out the air. 

An investigation of the wells of Maine, a large part of which 
are in granites, slates, shales and other hard rocks that are free 
from openings, showed no instances of deep freezing. In Minne- 
sota, North Dakota and Nebraska, on the other hand, large 
numbers of wells that penetrate porous deposits or cavernous 
limestones freeze every winter. In Wisconsin and Michigan freez- 
ing, though less common, occasionally occurs, especially in some 
of the wells in the porous gravelly hills and ridges. Even in 
Pennsylvania freezing, apparently due to the same causes, occurs 
in oil wells at depths of thousands of feet. In states farther south, 
especially in Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky and Indiana, wells occa- 
sionally freeze, both those in the porous surface deposits and those 
in limestones. 

Cause of Phenomena. — The foregoing phenomena, including 
the fluctuations of head and flow, breathing, freezing, etc., are all 
found, on careful study, to be dependent on a single general 
cause. The relations to temperature and wind direction, with 
which the phenomena have been correlated by some, are found to 
be only casual. On the other hand, it is found that the peculiar- 
ities of behavior are very intimately connected with barometer 
changes, the relation of the blowing to storms being recognized 
by nearly every owner of a blowing well. Freezing, indraft of 
breathing wells, low water level, small discharge and clear water 
all occur in clear weather during periods of high barometer; 
while the thawing of the well, the melting of the surrounding 
snow, blowing, high head, strong discharge and milky or dis- 
colored water occur during periods of low barometer. 

Since, in the breathing wells, the blowing is commonly asso- 
ciated with a falling barometer and the sucking with a rising 
barometer, it seems certain that they are caused by the variations 
of atmospheric pressure. The essential conditions, in most in- 



138 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

stances, are that there be a double-tubed well, in which the air is 
able to pass between the pump-pipe and outer casing, and a 
porous, water-free stratum by which air. may be absorbed or ex- 
pelled according to the external barometric pressure. When, on 
the approach of a storm, the pressure at the surface is reduced, 
the air confined in the earth rushes out until equilibrium is re- 
established; but when, upon the return of fair weather, the 
pressure again increases, air is forced back through the well into 
the earth. In the few wells from which water is spouted during 
the period of "blowing," the casing probably extends virtually 
to the water, but not far below it. 

The freezing of wells seems likewise to be due to the indraft of 
cold air at periods of high barometer, the air passing down the 
well and freezing the water. When, on a change of weather, the 
direction of the air current is reversed the well thaws and the 
snow about the well mouth melts. 

The fluctuation of head and flow are also due to variation of 
atmospheric pressure. The water in many deep wells is under 
more or less hydrostatic pressure, which is opposed by the pressure 
of the air, the level at which the water stands representing the 
result or the balance of the two forces. If the pressure of the air 
is lessened and the hydrostatic pressure remains the same the 
water level in the well will rise, and if the atmospheric pressure 
increases the water level will fall. In some non-flowing wells 
the increased head will cause the water to flow; in flowing wells 
it increases the volume of discharge. 

The roiliness of the water is apparently dependent on the 
same general causes, i.e., the fluctuation of barometer pressure. 
As low air pressure causes increased discharge in certain flowing 
wells, and as increased discharge produces increased velocity of 
the water both in the well and in the material from which the 
water is derived, it often happens, when this material includes 
more or less silt which is too coarse to be affected by ordinary 
currents, that quantities of silt are loosened under the increased 
velocity and taken up by the water, producing milkiness. Iron 



PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS 



139 



oxide may be precipitated in the earth from chalybeate waters, 
although it may not ordinarily be present in amounts large 
enough to be noticeable in the water drawn from a well, but dur- 
ing periods of low barometer this oxide is disturbed in much the 
same way as is the silt, and mixes with the water as a yellow or 
red precipitate, rendering it unfit for use. 

In wells that do not flow occasional turbidity is more difficult 
to explain, but the motion of the ground water tapped by these 




Fig. 61. — Supposed conditions producing discoloration of waters in non-flowing wells. 
A, normal water level in bed; a, normal water level in well; B, level in water bed 
during low barometer; b, l^vel in well during low barometer. Arrows indicate 
direction of ground-water movement due to changes in barometric pressure result- 
ing in disturbance of fine particles of clay or iron. 

wells is no doubt caused by changes in barometric pressure and, 
as the phenomena occur under identically the same conditions, it 
is probable that they are due to the same general cause. 

Remedies for Freezing Wells. — Several simple methods of 
preventing wells from freezing are in common use, but, owing to a 
failure to understand fully the causes of the freezing, many of 
these methods fail and others are only partly successful. Some 
persons have the idea that freezing is caused by the chilling of the 
air inside the well by the transmission of the cold outside air 
through the casing, to remedy which the pumps are carefully 
wrapped in cloth, packed with straw, or otherwise protected. 
As a rule, this protection is entirely without effect, for the freez- 
ing does not occur in the manner assumed, but by access of air to 
the pipe at considerable depths. Other persons partly recognize 
the true cause of freezing and make an attempt to prevent access 
of air by packing earth, straw or other material about the well. 
This practice is partly successful, as it tends to check the indraft 



I40 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 









^^^OR^^^^ 



of air, but the materials used are as a rule so porous that more or 
less air gets through them and the well freezes. The use of manure 
is somewhat more effective, for it warms the air that passes 
through it, but it involves great danger of pollution. 

Freezing is due to faults in the 
construction of the well itself and can 
ordinarily be prevented only by rem- 
edying the defects of construction. 

In open wells the air obtains ac- 
cess through the soil at the junction 
of curb and cover and through cracks 
in the curb or in the cover. The 
junction of curb and cover is tight in 
but few wells, and the cover itself, if 
of wood, is tight in none. The rem- 
edy for freezing consists in substitut- 
ing cement for wood and in tightly 
fitting it to the curb, which should 
also be coated with cement for some 
distance below the surface. 

The conditions in a cased well with 
escape at bottom are represented in 
Figure 62, in which A is the outer cas- 
ing; B, the inner or pump tube; C, 
the pump cylinder; and D, the well 
point. When the barometer is high 
the air is sucked in at E, at the 
mouth of the well, and passes off into 
the unsaturated sand at F. If the 
well is not pumped, it will not freeze 
•^ ^j:_:i£i.::2^.i.i.i2a:^ii:^^ a.t first, as the pipe contains no water 

Fig. 62. — Conditions governing abovc the water level G. If the well 

freezing in cased well with escape . , , , , , . . , , 

of air at bottom. (Sanford.) ^^ pumped and the water is raised to 

the cylinder C and up pipe B, the 
cold air passing between A and B is likely to freeze the well. 



;;DRY;i 

•sand' 



-VALVES 




PECULIARITIES OF BEHAVIOR OF WELLS 



141 



Water level 



Impervious 
material 



Even If the well is not pumped, the air current, If long continued, 
will eventually freeze the ground water at G and possibly also 
the water in the pipe. 

The remedy for freezing in such a well is to fill tightly the space 
between A and B at a point near the surface with some impervious 
material. A filling of cement resting on an improvised plug will 
probably efi^ectively prevent freezing. The home-made rag pack- 
ing sometimes used Is generally too po- 
rous, permitting enough air to get through 
to produce freezing. Rubber plugs are 
effective, but care should be taken not 
to use materials which can damage the 
water if they happen to drop to the bot- 
tom of the well. Manure should never 
be used about a well cased in the manner 
shown in the figure, as it can get to the 
water just as well as the air can. 

Figure 63 shows a well which, though 
cased to a certain depth, has developed 
leaks by corrosion or imperfect joints 
and by careless setting of the casing In 
the rock. During periods of high barom- 
eter cold air enters the mouth of the well, 
passes downward between the casing and 
pump tube, and out into the porous •••■.••;••■■. 
stratum. The constant indraft of cold Fig. 63 
air quickly freezes the water remaining 
in the pipe after pumping. 

The proper treatment is to plug effectually the space between 
the two pipes at a point near the surface. 

The conditions In a well passing through porous rock are also 
illustrated in Figure 63, in which the bed of sandstone, although stiff 
enough to stand without casing, may be sufficiently porous to 
permit large amounts of chilled air to enter from the well during 
periods of high barometer, resulting In freezing, as before. The 



'.pry porous'; 
■.-material .'■■ 



Leak in/.'- 
.casing -.-.■ 



Leakdueto.'-'-'- 
improper set-.'- 
';Ttin^ of casing .- 



Impervious 
rock 



■.Consolidated.' 
/but porous:'.;, 
•s'andstdrie--.^- 



Impervious 
rock 



Conditions govern- 
ing freezing in wells with leaky 
casings and porous walls. 



142 



DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 



remedy is a tight packing between the two pipes at a point near 

the surface. 

Wells encountering open passages are practically limited to 

limestone in which solution channels have been formed by cir- 
culating waters and later abandoned. In 
Figure 64, which shows such a well, B is 
the pump tube and C an open passage 
into which air entering at the mouth of 
the well during periods of high pressure 
is carried off into the rock, producing 
a circulation which soon freezes water 
standing in the inner pipe. The treat- 
ment is the same as that required for the 
well just described; it consists of plugging 
the space at E. 

In many wells, however, this treat- 
ment is ineffectual, indicating that the 
cold air is not entering at E, but is cir- 
culating through underground passages, 
as indicated by the arrow at D. In such 
wells it becomes necessary to set the plug 
at the point where the passage is en- 
countered, in this case at D. In some 
wells, as in one near Wabasha, Minn., 

the crevices through which the air is circulating are so numerous 

that the space between the outer and inner tubes must be filled 

from bottom to top with cement. 




Fig. 64. — Conditions govern- 
ing freezing in limestone wells. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
CISTERNS AND HOUSE TANKS. 

When Cisterns are Desirable. — The ordinary cistern is an 
excavation in the ground, usually circular but sometimes rec- 
tangular, curbed with cement or with bricks, stone or other mate- 
rial (with a supposedly impervious lining of cement) and used 
for the storage of rain water. Wood-curbed cisterns are also 
occasionally encountered in frontier districts when other materials 
are not at hand. 

Cisterns are desirable (i) wherever the rock, clay or other 
material is a poor water bearer; (2) wherever the ground water is 
too hard for washing, too alkaline for cooking or too brackish for 
drinking; (3) wherever waters from other sources are inherently 
unsafe; (4) whenever the ground waters are at depths prohibiting 
their common use; and (5) whenever the rainfall is too irregular 
to maintain a constant supply, or when wells, for one reason or 
another, are impracticable. They are especially desirable in the 
larger towns where the houses are crowded and the wells often 
polluted, and where no public supply is available. Again, on 
farms, where wells are not infrequently located near barns or 
other sources of pollution, cisterns often constitute the only safe 
source of water. 

Advantages of Cisterns. — Perhaps the chief use of cisterns is 
to furnish supplementary supplies in regions where the available 
ground water is limited. In many of the best farming regions of 
the country, as in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky and else- 
where, the rocks either carry so little water or carry it so irregularly 
that many wells fail to obtain a sufficient supply to meet domestic 
needs and the demands of stock. In shaly regions the water sup- 
plies are even more uncertain and it is often impossible to procure 

143 



144 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

the necessary supplies from wells. This is true also of many 
areas underlain by clay and of some areas characterized by thick 
beds of clayey till. In all these regions supplementary supplies 
of water are necessary, at least for stock, and where springs, ponds 
or lakes are not available cisterns must be resorted to, and in 
some places they are necessary even for domestic supplies. 

Rain water is the softest of all natural waters, hence is very 
desirable for washing and other domestic purposes, especially in 
limestone regions, where the water of many wells or springs is so 
hard that soap, instead of dissolving and making a good lather, 
forms a dirty-looking curd or scum on the surface. In such 
regions much trouble is also caused by the formation of thick 
crusts of lime and magnesia on the inside of the kettles and other 
utensils and by the precipitation of the white, milky sediment 
which clouds the water when it has been boiled. In other regions, 
as in parts of Florida and certain desert regions, the water may be 
highly charged with soda, with the result that rice or other white 
foods cooked in it are turned a dirty yellow. Elsewhere, espe- 
cially on low sandy beaches and the keys of our limestone coasts, 
the well water is brackish and unfit for drinking. All these 
difficulties are avoided if soft cistern water derived from the 
collection of the rain water is available. 

It is usually impossible for pollution to enter a properly con- 
structed cistern — one in which the lining is water-tight — 
through the walls, and with a little care and by providing water- 
tight covers it is possible to keep out much of the undesirable 
matter from the top. Of course more or less dirt may be washed 
from the roof into the cistern, but the first run-ofT can be allowed 
to waste either by some automatic appliance or by hand, letting 
only the later and relatively pure water enter the cistern. A 
cistern, therefore, if properly made and cared for, is to be regarded 
as a practically safe source of supply. It is certainly far safer 
than the ordinary dug, bored and punched well, and even than 
many of the shallower driven wells. 

Another great advantage of cisterns is their convenience. As 



CISTERNS AND HOUSE TANKS 145 

they are built near or even under a house, dairy or barn the 
water may often be pumped directly from them to the sink or to 
the dairy or watering trough. 

Because of their shallowness and the smoothness of their walls 
cisterns can be much more quickly and thoroughly cleaned than 
wells. Consequently they are usually cleaned more frequently 
and the water is kept in better condition. 

Disadvantages of Cisterns. — Cisterns, notwithstanding their 
many good qualities, have some disadvantages. The dirt from 
the roofs is very objectionable, including dust blown from barn- 
yards and highways, the droppings of birds, etc. The remedy is, 
as already stated, to allow only that portion of the water falling 
during the latter part of a shower, after the dirt from the roof has 
been largely removed, to enter the cistern. 

Inasmuch as the cistern has to be emptied of its water before 
it can be cleaned, there must be some other available supply to 
tide over until it shall be again filled by the rains, but this dis- 
advantage, of course, applies equally to wells. 

The greatest disadvantage of a cistern and one which subjects 
the users to grave danger is the liability to crack. No matter how 
good the cement used in the construction or how careful the 
workmanship, cracks are liable to develop and admit shallow and 
possibly polluted ground waters. It is to the waters entering in 
this way that the notable hardness often indicated in cistern waters 
Is due. Cistern water under normal conditions Is soft, and if It 
becomes hard it is a sure Indication that ground water has in some 
way found access to the cistern. It is a danger signal which 
should not be disregarded, and whenever It is noted the cistern 
should be emptied and repaired at once. 

Size of Cistern Required. — The ordinary cistern, usually 5 or 
6 feet In width and 10 or 12 feet deep, almost invariably fails to 
meet the demands on it during extended periods of drought. To 
Insure a supply which can always be depended on either for do- 
mestic or for stock use, much larger cisterns or one or more re- 
serve cisterns are necessary. 



146 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

If rainfall were equally distributed throughout the year and 
if the consumption of water were regular, a cistern large enough 
to hold one or two months' supply would be sufficient, but, un- 
fortunately, the rainfall is ordinarily very irregular, from one- 
half to two-thirds of the entire precipitation of the year not 
infrequently falling in three or four of the colder months, while the 
remainder is distributed over the eight or nine warmer months. 
This reason alone would make large cisterns desirable, but still 
another reason is found in the larger consumption of water in 
the warmer season, which is generally the period of deficient 
rainfall. To be sure of a supply through long periods of drought 
such as are likely to occur one or more times in each decade, it is 
necessary to have a cistern that will hold when full two-thirds or 
three-fourths of the total amount required during the year. For 
drinking, cooking and washing each person on a farm ordinarily 
uses from 5 to lo gallons or more of water a day, and each head of 
stock ordinarily requires from 6 to 15 gallons. The amount used 
however, depends so largely on local conditions that it should be 
carefully ascertained In each specific case before the size of a 
cistern Is determined. An allowance of 25 to 35 per cent should 
also be made for loss due to evaporation, the deflection of the 
earlier and more or less dirty washings from the roof, the overflow 
of gutters in heavy storms, the loss by snow sliding or blowing 
from the roof, the leakage of pipes and other minor causes. The 
total amount needed and the allowance for loss having been de- 
termined, it becomes possible to calculate the size of cistern or 
cisterns required. The volume of a round cistern is approxi- 
mately five-sixths of the product obtained by multiplying the 
square of the diameter by the depth. 

For assistance in determining the amount of water annually 
falling on a roof the following table, showing the number of gal- 
lons falling on each square foot on roofs of gentle, medium and 
steep slopes at different rates of rainfall. Is presented. The annual 
rainfall of any particular locality can be ascertained from the 
United States Weather Bureau. (See also Fig. i.) 



CISTERNS AND HOUSE TANKS 147 

Amount of water falling annually on roofs of varying slopes at different rates of rainfall. 



Slope of roof. 


Water falling on 


roof, in 


gallons per square 


foot, when annual 


rainfall, 


in inches 


is: 


De- 
grees. 


Ratio (ver- 
tical to hor- 
izontal). 


IS 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


45 


1:1 


6.6 


8.8 


II. 


13.2 


15-4 


17.6 


19.8 


22 .0 


24.2 


26.4 


26I 


1:2 


«-3 


II. 8 


14.8 


17.7 


20.7 


23.6 


26.6 


29-5 


32.5 


35-4 


63^ 


2:1 


4.2 


5-6 


7.0 


«.3 


9-7 


II .1 


12. 5 


13-9 


153 


16.7 



Location of Cistern. — Theoretically the location of a cistern 
makes little difference in its liability to pollution, but practically 
it is of the greatest importance. As has been indicated, cracks 
in the walls are of common occurrence, in some cisterns being 
sufficiently open to admit enough outside water to make the 
supply noticeably hard, and where such water can enter pollution 
can enter also. Bacteria or disease germs can develop and enter 
the cistern through cement walls even when there are no cracks. 
It is therefore highly desirable that the cistern should not be 
located near a sewage drain, barnyard or other source of contami- 
nation, the same precautions being observed as have been indi- 
cated for wells. The site selected should be in firm ground, as 
otherwise there will be danger of the cistern settling and cracking. 
Roots of trees are also a frequent cause of injury, and cisterns 
should be located as far away from them as possible. 

Construction and Equipment. — The excavation should be 
made large enough and deep enough to permit the laying of 
proper foundations and adequate walls. For curbing either 
cement or stone or brick laid in mortar and lined on the inside 
with a thick coating of hydraulic cement may be used. It is pref- 
erable that the top be arched over with brick or stone and lined 
with cement. An opening, provided with an air-tight cover, 
through which a person may enter the cistern for purposes of ex- 
amination, cleaning and repair, should be left at the top. After 
the completion of the cistern, it should be frequently examined, 
in order to detect and remedy any cracks or other defects due to 



148 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

settling, the action of frost, penetration of tree roots, etc. If there 
is any likeHhood of the cistern fiUing to the top, an overflow pipe 
may be provided to advantage. 

The use of wood-curbed cisterns, mentioned on p. 143, should 
be discouraged. Such cisterns not only commonly taste strongly 
of the wood, but they permit the entrance of both pollution and 
mineralized ground waters through their cracks, and are other- 
wise unsatisfactory in many ways. Care should also be taken 
with the equipment used for conducting the water to the reser- 
voir. There should be adequate roof-gutters and leader pipes of 
galvanized iron or other non-rusting material to carry the water 
to the ground, while tiled pipes with cemented joints should be 
used to conduct the water through the ground from the house to 
the cistern. It is always desirable to provide a "leader cut-off," 
or "separator," which consists of a metal deflector — not very 
unlike the common dampers in stovepipes — which works within 
the leader. By means of this deflector the first more or less dirty 
wash from the roof is turned aside and carried out through an 
opening In the leader pipe, and it Is only when the deflector — 
which is operated from the outside — is turned that the water 
passes into the cistern. There are also automatic appliances for 
accomplishing the same purpose. 

Cistern Filters. — In addition to the deflectors, cut-offs, or 
other devices for separating the first more or less contaminated 
run-off from roofs, further attempts at purification are occasion- 
ally made by passing the roof-waters through filters before finally 
conducting them into the cisterns. 

Sand and animal charcoal are the most effective of the various 
filtering materials commonly available to the farmer, and both 
are highly efficient filtrants when properly cared for. Unfortu- 
nately, however, unless frequently renewed (at least in part), 
they rapidly become contaminated both by the materials strained 
from the water and by the growth of bacteria, which develop with 
great rapidity within the filtering material as its pores become 
clogged. Water passing through a filter under these conditions 



CISTERNS AND HOUSE TANKS 



149 



is likely to carry more bacteria and other forms of contamination 
than the unfiltered water. 

Inasmuch as it is rare that the farmer possesses the time, to 
say nothing of the requisite knowledge and skill, to properly care 
for such mechanical filters, their use is of doubtful advisability, 
especially as the desired purification can be accomplished with 
greater facility and almost equal effectiveness by the use of auto- 
matic deflectors or similar devices. 

Combination Wells and Cisterns. — Although cisterns of the 
dimensions indicated in the preceding section will supply enough 
water for domestic use in a small family, they will not supply 
enough for stock. In fact, unless the farm buildings are very 
large or numerous it is, as a rule, impracticable to procure enough 
cistern water to supply more than a few head of stock, and it is 
therefore generally necessary to utilize the ground-water supplies. 
These are sometimes too far from the surface to be available 
during the summer, but there is almost always enough water in 
the ground in winter, and the ideal provision would be to store a 
portion of the winter supply for summer use. 

In the winter the ground-water level is high, often standing 
only a few feet below the surface, but in summer it is usually 
much lower, often many feet from 
the top of the ground. If a well is 
carried deep enough sufficient water 
can in most places be obtained, but 
many wells are too shallow to give 
never-failing supplies, and as a con- 
sequence they may be short of water 
in times of drought. If the water 
in the well in the winter could be 
retained till summer, there would be 
little difficulty with the supply of 
most wells, but, unfortunately, as the ground-water level falls 
the water in the wells falls also. In Fig. 65 ac indicates the 
depth of water in a well during the winter, and he indicates its 



b. 



m////////////////A 



Fig. 65. — Combination well and 
cistern. 



I50 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

depth in the summer when 'the water level is at b. The volume 
at depth ac might be sufficient for the whole year, and that at 
depth be insufficient to last through the summer. To preserve 
the winter supply it is necessary to cement the bottom and walls 
of the well nearly to the winter water level, as shown by the heavy 
lines in the figure, thus converting it into a semicistern. When 
this is done the well will fill during the winter to the level a and 
will still contain water to about the level d after the ground water 
has fallen to b. 

Combination wells and cisterns of this type are especially 
dangerous if near any source of pollution, hence they are recom- 
mended only for stock wells located at some distance from build- 
ings and barnyards. They should be used for domestic supplies 
only where on higher ground and at some distance from ony 
source of pollution. Cisterns completely cemented and covered 
are safest where buildings are near. 

In some places it is the practice to turn the water from build- 
ings into a well, but, although the well water is somewhat softened 
thereby, there is no gain in amount, as water will not stand in an 
ordinary well higher than in the outside ground, the equivalent 
of the extra water turned into the well being lost by outward 
percolation. 

House Tanks. — These are allied to cisterns but are constructed 
of wood with water-tight linings and are located within the build- 
ings instead of in the ground outside. Inasmuch as they are 
filled by gravity it follows that they must be placed below the 
level of the gutters. The most common location is in an L or 
gable lower than the main building. 

Such house tanks have the marked advantage of affording 
gravity supplies of flowing water on the lower floors. An auto- 
matic cut-off may be installed in the leader outside, or the de- 
flector may be so arranged that it may be worked from inside the 
building. 



CHAPTER XX. 
FARM WATER-WORKS. 

Convenience of Running Water. — It is the belief of many 
that one of the great evils of this country is the tendency of the 
young people of both sexes to remove from the farms. It is not 
simply that the glitter of the city calls, but partly that the dull 
routine and endless drudgery of rural life drives them away. 
Anything that serves to lessen the sordidness of the struggle, 
lighten the day's labor, or make less heavy the burden of life is 
of inestimable value. 

In very few ways, if any, may the drudgery be so readily 
lessened or the pleasures and comforts of rural life so increased 
as by the installation of running water in the houses and barns. 
Everywhere this is beginning to be recognized, and the time 
should not be far distant when water-works systems will be found 
on every prosperous farm. That they are not there already is 
due to the facts that their great convenience is often not fully 
appreciated, that their nature is often not understood, and that 
their relative cheapness is not realized. The time is past when 
they are to be regarded as extravagances; to-day they are a 
necessity for both comfort and health. There are very few of 
the older or larger farms that cannot well afford the cost of their 
installation. 

Time is money, and a water system furnishing a running supply 
is a labor-saving device that will quickly pay for itself when stock 
is to be watered, gardens are to be irrigated, or a house is to be 
supplied. To the woman, upon whom frequently falls the endless 
drudgery of pumping and carrying, in fair weather and foul, the 
water from a well located perhaps a hundred feet away, the relief 
afforded by the installation of such a system will be great. With 

151 



152 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

running water at the kitchen sink, with flush closets and bath- 
rooms, and, perhaps, with a hot-water supply for washing, the life 
of every one on the farm will be made easier, pleasanter, and more 
healthful. 

Methods of Supplying Running Water. — When the well, 
spring, or reservoir furnishing the farm water supply is situated 
considerably above the buildings to be supplied, and is not 
separated from them by intervening hills, the water may often 
be brought to the points of utilization by gravity. Unfortunately, 
however, the sources of supply are commonly lower than the 
buildings, and to make the water available at the latter some 
one of several forms of water-works systems must be installed. 
The systems in most common use are gravity systems supplied 
by elevated tanks and pneumatic systems delivering the water 
at the points desired through the agency of compressed air. 

Gravity Supplies from Wells. — Where a flowing well is sit- 
uated at a point higher than the building to be supplied, or where 
the head of the water is sufficient to lift it, when confined, to the 
desired point, the supply may be conducted to the house or barn 
by means of pipes attached directly to the well casing. 

With tubular cased wells that do not flow, but in which the 
water stands at a point higher than that at which it is to be 
delivered, the pipe may be attached to the casing as before and 
laid to the house or barn. In dug wells, a pipe may be conducted 
from a point below the water level upward to the top and thence 
to the buildings as before. To start the water in the siphons 
thus formed, the air must first be withdrawn; usually this is most 
conveniently accomplished by attaching a suction pump to the 
lower ends of the service or discharge pipe. 

The principle on which the siphon works Is as follows: The 
pump temporarily attached to the lower end tends, when worked, 
to create a vacuum in the pipe, and the water, under the influence 
of the atmospheric pressure at the well, is forced upward until 
the pipe is filled. If the pump is now removed and the water 
allowed to discharge, the latter, by its own suction, will draw more 



FARM WATER-WORKS 153 

water from the well and a permanent circulation will be estab- 
lished. 

Theoretically, water may be carried over a rise of more than 
30 feet above its source, provided there is a still greater drop on 
the other side. In practice, however, 20 to 25 feet is about as 
high as it can be conveniently lifted. The chief difficulty arises 
from the development of small leaks which admit air into the 
pipe and destroy the vacuum. Also, more or less air is given up 
by the water itself in its passage through the pipe. This collects 
at the top of the bend and sooner or later the vacuum is destroyed. 
If lead pipe is used and the lift is not more than 15 feet, the siphon- 
age is seldom lost, but the farmer should never be without a pump 
or other means of reestablishing the flow. If tight taps are pro- 
vided at the discharge end, the flow may be shut off when not 
needed and the waste of water thus prevented, but a leak may 
admit air and destroy the vacuum. 

If the flow through a siphon is continuous, there will be com- 
paratively little trouble from freezing and the pipe need not be 
buried more than a foot or two. If it is to be shut off when not 
in use, however, it should be placed at a depth of not less than 
5 feet in the northern parts of the United States. Three feet is 
commonly a sufficient depth in the central portions of the country, 
and 2 feet or less for the southern portions. 

The cost of galvanized iron pipe at the factory commonly 
ranges from about 3^ cents a foot for |-inch pipe to 5^^ cents for 
|-inch, 7I cents for i-inch, and 12 cents for i^-inch. 

Gravity Supplies from Springs. — To utilize the water of 
springs an impounding reservoir will usually have to be con- 
structed. This may consist simply in stoning up the spring to 
hold back the surrounding earth, or it may require the construc- 
tion of a small dam of earth or stone. In either case the labor is 
usually slight, requiring only a few hours or a day or two at the 
outside. A covering should also be provided to keep out animals 
and leaves or other dirt. 

The service pipe should be placed far enough above the bottom 



154 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

of the spring to prevent the entrance of sand or of matter that has 
sunk to the bottom, and low enough so the water level will not 
sink below it in times of drought, nor the strainer, with which it 
should always be provided, become clogged with matter floating 
on the surface. 

The water may be carried to the house or barn by direct 
gravity service or by a siphon such as is described in the preceding 
section. The cost of pipe will be as there indicated, and the depth 
of burial about the same. 

Gravity Supplies from Reservoirs. — Reservoirs may be 
either natural or artificial. If the latter, dams for impounding 
the water will have to be constructed. On the farm these will 
generally be of earth, with stone or cement flumes supplied with 
wooden flash boards. Masonry or cement dams are occasionally 
desirable for damming streams in narrow ravines with rock sides. 

Earth dams should be built of clayey or loamy materials, 
should not be less than 8 or lo feet wide at the top, and should 
have slopes not steeper than 35° or 40°, except when faced with 
stone. It is always best to strip the turf from the ground on which 
the drain is to rest and to dig a trench 3 feet or more in width, and 
2 to 3 feet in depth along the center line. This should afterwards 
be filled with the material of which the dam is built or, better, 
with puddled clay, a core of which may be carried to advantage 
up through the center of the dam to the surface. It is always 
desirable to rest the dam on rock or firm materials, but, if this is 
not feasible, a low dam may often be made water-tight at the 
bottom by driving a center piling of slabs or boards. 

The flume may be of wood, of stone set in cement, or entirely 
of cement. If the latter, the cement should be laid in temporary 
wooden frames or molds which should be removed as soon as 
the cement has set. A piling of boards or planks should be set 
beneath and for several feet each side of the flume, for these are 
common points of leakage and may, if not attended to, lead to 
the washing out of the flume or dam. 

Much trouble In home-made dams Is often caused by musk- 



FARM WATER-WORKS 155 

rats which dig through the dams in winter and give rise to leaks 
which, if undetected, may lead to the destruction of the dam. 
Stone and cement facings or core walls will prevent this. 
Usually there is little trouble from this cause where the inner face 
is given a gentle slope. 

The method of piping will be essentially the same as described 
in connection with gravity supplies from wells and springs. 

Gravity Supplies from Elevated Tanks. — In the case of ele- 
vated tanks, the distribution only is by gravity, some form of 
pump being required to lift the water to the storage receptacle. 

Most of the tanks used in connection with farm water systems 
have one or the other of three forms: (i) Wooden, (2) metal, 
(3) cement. The wooden tanks are commonly of cypress with 
adjustable bands of iron; the metal tanks are usually of galvan- 
ized steel ; while the cement tanks are of the best quality hydraulic 
cement with inclosed reinforcing irons. 

The location of a tank will depend principally upon the 
material of which it is constructed and the amount of water to 
be stored. A cement tank, because of the method of construc- 
tion and weight, will have to be placed upon the ground, usually 
upon the crest of a hill or similar elevation. A small wooden or 
steel tank may be placed within the frame of a windmill tower, 
or may be located in the upper story of a house or in the loft of a 
barn. Larger wooden and steel tanks naturally require special 
towers, either of wood or steel. 

Cement tanks require considerable skill for their erection, 
especially in the insertion of the reinforcing iron, and their con- 
struction will seldom be desirable upon the farm. They are 
better adapted to the needs of small villages. ' 

In placing a tank in a house or barn, care must be taken to see 
that the timbering is strong enough to support the load. The 
weight of the water is easily calculated by multiplying the 
capacity of the tank in gallons by 8^ pounds. A 500-gallon tank, 
which weighs, when filled, about 2 tons, is about as large as it is 
safe to place within a house, although larger ones may be safely 



156 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

installed in heavily timbered barns. The tank should always, if 
possible, be placed above a partition or other source of support 
to the floor. By using a large but shallow tank, the weight is 
more widely distributed, permitting larger supplies to be stored. 
Under such conditions, rectangular tanks are necessarily more 
convenient than round types. Sometimes a reserve tank is lo- 
cated in the cellar, the water being pumped to the higher tank as 
the demand arises. Such tanks may be filled with rain water 
(see House-tanks, page 150), but are more commonly supplied by 
pumping from a well or spring. Tanks in barns are conven- 
iently filled by means of windmills located on the roof above 
them. 

The location of a tank within a house or barn materially re- 
duces the danger of freezing. The tank may be easily surrounded 
by straw or other insulating material, while the pipes are kept 
warm by the heat of the stoves within the house, or, to a certain 
extent, by the warmth of the stock quartered in the barn. It 
will usually be desirable, however, to have the pump located in a 
dry well, covered to keep out the cold air, and to bury the pipes 
below the winter frost line. 

Exposed tanks give much trouble in northern latitudes owing 
to the tendency of the piping to freeze. Some relief is afforded 
by wrapping the pipes with several layers of insulating material 
and inclosing the whole in a box, but this does not prevent freez- 
ing within the tank itself. By shutting off the water at the tank 
and draining the pipes most of the trouble may be prevented, but, 
inasmuch as this involves climbing the tank, perhaps several 
times a day, it is rather a heroic and burdensome process during 
the long cold winters of the North. In cold climates the whole 
system, tank, tower, engine and pump, may have to be housed 
9,nd kept warm by fires. 

The size of a tank will be determined principally by the num- 
ber of people and head of cattle to be supplied, but will vary 
somewhat with the conditions of filling. If a gasoline or similar 
engine is used, a tank that will hold a day's supply will often be 



FARM WATER-WORKS 157 

sufficient, but if dependence is to be placed upon a windmill the 
tank should be of a capacity to tide over a week of still weather. 

The amount of water required for each person on a farm, 
including the water used for drinking, cooking and washing, is 
commonly placed at 10 gallons, but, if water-closets and bath- 
room_s have been installed, the amount is likely to be nearer 25 
gallons. Each horse or cow consumes about 10 gallons, each pig 
2 gallons and each sheep about i gallon, A large farm will 
hardly get along with less than 500 gallons daily, while in some 
cases the amount used reaches a total of several thousand gallons. 

Each foot of elevation above a water tap would give about 
half a pound of pressure if it were not for the loss of head due to 
pipe friction. This amounts to considerable in the case of moder- 
ate flows through small pipes. For instance, water flowing at 
the rate of 5 gallons a minute through a f-inch pipe (inside diam- 
eter) loses 3I pounds of pressure (equivalent to a head of about 
6 feet) for each 100 feet of pipe. A i-inch pipe loses about 
0.8 pound, a i|-inch pipe | pound, and a 2-inch pipe 2V pound 
of pressure for each 100 feet of pipe when the water is flowing at 
the same rate. It is evident that pipe friction must be taken 
carefully into account when the height of a tank intended for 
supplying given buildings is to be determined. 

The makers' prices for wooden (cypress) tanks are approxi- 
mately $5.50 for a tank of 175-gallon capacity, $12 for one of 600 
gallons, $20 for 1000 gallons, and $28 for one holding 2000 gallons. 
Steel tanks of the same capacity cost respectively about $5, $11, 
$17 and $26. A 20-foot steel tower to hold a looo-gallon tank 
will cost about $40, or, if 40 feet high, about $75. The tower for 
a 2500-gallon tank should cost about $65 if 20 feet high, or about 
$125 if 40 feet high. The cost of pipes has been already indicated. 

Pneumatic or Pressure Tanks. — These are vertical or hori- 
zontal tanks of varying capacity, into which, after the outlets have 
been closed, water is pumped from a well or other source of supply. 
As the water rises the air is compressed, the pressure increasing 
to I, 2 and 3 atmospheres as the air is compressed to |, f and j 



158 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

its original volume. These pressures are equivalent to approxi- 
mately 15, 30 and 45 pounds, respectively, and will lift the water, 
when the outlet valves are open, to 34, 69 and 103 feet. In other 
words, each pound of pressure, as shown on the gage, will raise 
the water about 2.3 feet. From these figures and the known ele- 
vation of the highest tap in use, it is easy to compute the pressure 
that will be required to distribute the water. 

It is always necessary to carry a certain amount of excess 
pressure so that the system will continue to deliver supplies until 
the tank is fully emptied. Ten pounds of such excess pressure is 
usually sufficient in the case of an ordinary farmhouse. Con- 
siderable volumes of air are absorbed by water, especially under 
pressure, and the supply in the pneumatic tank is soon depleted. 
New air then has to be pumped into the tank, preferably when it 
is nearly empty. 

In a recent form of the pneumatic system the air is forced into 
the tank by a hand or power compressor and thence by a pipe to 
a submerged pump at the well. As soon as any water is drawn 
from the system at the house or elsewhere the pump is automati- 
cally started by the compressed air and the water forced to the 
house and tap, thus giving a constant supply of water fresh from 
the well. 

The size of the pressure tanks may be computed from the data 
in the preceding section, it being borne in mind, however, that the 
tank is rarely filled to more than two-thirds its full capacity. In 
locating the tank, the chief essential is to select a spot where it 
will be protected from the frost. It may be placed in the cellar 
of the. house, in the stable, or beneath the ground. The cellar, 
if the house is provided with one, will probably be the most con- 
venient location, since the tank will always be open to quick and 
convenient inspection. 

The pneumatic system has many advantages over other 
systems, and, although it has been in practical use less than 
twenty years, it is already found in hundreds if not thousands of 
localities. It provides a system simple in operation and one in 



FARM WATER-WORKS 159 

which there is no possibility of contamination by dust and insects. 
If properly located, the system is free from freezing troubles in 
winter, while giving a cool, aerated and palatable supply in sum- 
mer. There is slight danger of collapse and little trouble with 
leakage. Moreover, it is a flexible system and can be extended 
to supply other and higher fixtures by simply increasing the 
pressure. 

The cost of a pneumatic system varies with its capacity and 
the power used. A 220-gallon tank of a working capacity of 150 
gallons with equipment, including hand pump and fixtures, can 
be had for about $60, but larger tanks cost considerably more. 
Although the original outlay is greater than for elevated tanks, 
the pneumatic tanks will last much longer, require fewer repairs, 
and demand relatively little attention. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATERS. 

Purity of Rain Water. — Rain, which is the ultimate source of 
practically all waters reached by wells, is essentially pure when it 
falls upon the surface. Although it is true that a certain amount 
of dust and minute quantities of gas, including carbonic, sulphuric 
and nitric acid, are absorbed in the vicinity of cities by the rain 
drops in falling, and that near the sea a small amount of salt is 
brought down with the rain, the amount is very small. The gas 
in a cubic foot of Vain water would hardly fill a half-inch cube, 
while the amount of mineral matter is insignificant compared to 
that dissolved in the passage of the water through the soil and 
rocks, and is, for the most part, negligible. Bacteria in rain are 
few in number and commonly of harmless types. 

Source of Mineralization. — As the rain falls on the surface it 
commonly, in all but desert regions, sinks through a thin layer of 
humus or vegetable mould where it becomes charged with certain 
organic acids. These, together with the gases previously ab- 
sorbed from the air, attack certain of the minerals with which 
they are brought in contact. The feldspars, which are com- 
ponents of granite and several other rocks, afford sodium and 
potassium; calcium and magnesium are obtained from many 
minerals and rocks, especially from limestone; while iron, alumi- 
num and silica are derived from a variety of sources. Most of 
the substances mentioned are in the form of carbonates, sulphates, 
nitrates or chlorides. Many other substances, including some 
rare elements, are present in ground waters in small amounts. 

The amount of mineral matter dissolved by the ground 

waters depends to a considerable extent upon the character of 

the materials through which the waters have passed. In sands 

1 60 



COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATERS i6i 

and gravels, where the grains are often nearly pure quartz (silica), 
only slight amounts of mineral matter are dissolved, some of the 
waters from such materials having only a few parts per million of 
dissolved solids. Elsewhere, however, where more soluble miner- 
als are present, as in the alkaline or calcareous deposits of desert 
regions, the amount dissolved from sands and gravels Is often 
very large. 

In clays, because of the fineness of the grain, the water is 
brought into much more intimate contact with the material, and 
the amount of mineral matter dissolved Is considerably greater, 
being usually several times as much as in sands and gravels. 
Many of the clay waters are decidedly alkaline or calcareous and 
are unpalatable and otherwise unfit either for drinking or for use 
in boilers. 

In sandstones the waters are somewhat more mineralized than 
those of sands and gravels for the reason that the waters, owing to 
their slower movement, are In more Intimate contact with the 
grains and remain longer In contact with the particles. Likewise, 
slate waters are usually more mineralized than those of their un- 
consolidated counterparts, the clays. 

In crystalline rocks the mineral content of the water may be 
even less than In sandstone, since not only are rocks of this type 
relatively insoluble, but the water moves almost solely along open 
joints, etc., and Is brought into Intimate contact only with very 
limited surfaces. 

In marly clays and in limestones the waters dissolve large 
amounts of lime and magnesium which give the water the peculiar- 
ity known as hardness. Many waters from the softer limestones 
carry the offensive sulphureted hydrogen gas and are known as 
sulphur waters. 

Next to the composition of the water-bearing bed, time is the 
most important element in determining the amount of mineral 
matter in ground waters. The longer the water Is in contact 
with the rocks the more mineral matter will be dissolved. As, in 
general, long periods of time are required, under the laws of cir- 



1 62 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

culation, for waters to reach the deeper rocks, such waters will be 
almost invariably more mineralized than those at higher levels in 
the same rocks, although not necessarily more than in overlying 
rocks of more soluble materials. Likewise, as ground waters 
move more slowly through fine grained than through the more 
open and porous types, they will be more mineralized in the 
denser rocks. 

Hardness of Well Waters. — As intimated above, hardness, 
which is the property of water which causes it to form an insoluble 
curd with soap rather than to give a frothy lather, is due largely 
to the presence of lime and magnesia, usually in the form of bicar- 
bonates and sulphates. The water is said to possess temporary 
hardness when bicarbonates predominate, since upon boiling the 
bicarbonate is broken up, the lime precipitated, and the water 
softened. Where the mineral matter is in the form of sulphates, 
on the other hand, the water possesses permanent hardness since 
boiling has no softening effect. In general, water having more 
than 250 parts per million of hardness-producing constituents is 
inconvenient for washing purposes, although much harder waters 
may be used for drinking with impunity. 

Water for Boilers. — Many of the waters that are satisfactory 
for drinking purposes are unfit for boiler purposes, owing to the 
fact that the mineral constituents are deposited on heating as 
incrustations on the inside of the boilers. There is no satisfac- 
tory way of determining the suitability of a water for boiler use 
other than by complete analyses. 

In New England a purer water is demanded than almost any- 
where else in the country. In the classification of supplies used 
by the railroads in locomotives, waters containing less than 4 
grains of- mineral matter per gallon (69 parts per million) are re- 
garded as excellent, those of from 4 to 8 grains per gallon (69 to 
138 parts per million) as good, those carrying from 8 to 12 grains 
per gallon (138 to 207 parts per million) as fair and those over the 
latter amount as unfit for boiler use. 

In other parts of the country waters that are considered unfit 



COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATERS 163 

for use in portions of New England rank not only as "usable" but 
even as "good." Thus the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection 
and Insurance Company, on the assumption that half of the total 
mineral matter present is in the form of Incrustants, classes water 
containing up to about 15 grains per gallon (250 parts per million) 
as good, and that carrying from 15 to 30 grains per gallon (250 
to 500 parts per million) as usable. In the West even more 
mineralized waters are frequently used in boilers. 

Harmless and Harmful Ingredients. — The ordinary mineral 
ingredients in water, including lime, magnesia, silica, iron, etc., 
are usually harmless in the quantities in which they are commonly 
present, although slight digestive disorders are sometimes pro- 
duced in susceptible persons on changing from soft to hard waters. 
Waters that carry salt or iron enough to be tasted, those that are 
strongly sulphurous and those which are charged with alkali are, 
however, unsuitable for domestic uses, although often used for such 
purposes. Occasionally waters are found that are high in magne- 
sium sulphate (Epsom salts) or other "medicinal" salts, but it is 
needless to say that the habitual use of such waters is highly 
undesirable. 

In general, waters that are without taste may be regarded as 
free from mineral matter in harmful amounts, but this is by no 
means true as regards bacteria and polluting matter. The clear- 
est, coldest, most sparkling waters may be crowded with typhoid 
or other disease bacteria, and charged with seepage from cess- 
pools and privies without the polluted condition being indicated 
in the slightest degree, either by taste or appearance. Ingredi- 
ents of this character, though unapparent and often even unsus- 
pected, are unwholesome and harmful, and render the use of the 
water highly dangerous. 

When Well Waters Should be Suspected. — When well waters 
which are usually clear become roily, when any objectionable or 
unusual taste develops in previously tasteless waters or when an 
examination shows sources of pollution in the form of privies, 
cesspools, barns or hogpens within short distances — 150 feet or 



1 64 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

less — of the well, the waters should be at once looked upon with 
suspicion. 

It is true that the roiliness or turbidity may result from a dis- 
turbance of the soil at the very bottom of the well and be en- 
tirely harmless; but, on the other hand, it may be an indication 
of the entrance of polluted surface waters at the top. The cause 
should, in any case, be investigated. 

The development of an unusual taste should likewise be looked 
into at once. Often, especially in driven and other tubular wells, 
the taste will be at once recognized as due to iron, and may be 
dismissed from the mind as harmless. At other times a woody 
ta.ste is noticed. This may come from peaty matter in the soil 
and be unavoidable, but if from wooden curbings, these should be 
replaced by iron, stone or tile; for, although perhaps not always 
absolutely unsafe, decaying wood in contact with the water is far 
from desirable. 

The most dangerous pollution is that coming from the dis- 
charges of man or animals, which seep through the ground from 
the privy, cesspool or barnyard into the well. It is by such 
pollution that the typhoid fever on the farm is frequently caused. 
Sickness does not result from the use of polluted waters in every 
instance, for the development of the more serious diseases requires 
the transmission of the specific disease bacteria in addition to the 
usual sewage bacteria accompanying filthy seepages. It is hardly 
necessary to say that, even when specific disease germs are absent, 
the use of polluted water, really a diluted form of sewage, is both 
obnoxious and risky. 

Analyses and Bacteriological Examinations. — When there is 
any cause for suspecting pollution or for doubting the wholesome- 
ness of a well water it is highly desirable that a sanitary examina- 
tion of the water be made at once. 

Pollution in well waters is commonly indicated by the presence 
of abnormal amounts of chlorine, usually derived from the urine 
of animals, by the presence of organic matter in the state of 
active decomposition, and by the presence of sewage bacteria. 



COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATERS 165 

The examination of the water will, therefore, usually consist of a 
determination of the chlorine (for comparison with unpolluted 
waters of the same locality), tests for nitrites and nitrates (indic- 
ative respectively of present and past organic decay) and bac- 
teriological examinations. 

The tests involved in the sanitary analyses and bacteriological 
examinations are quite delicate and to be wholly reliable must be 
made by competent specialists. 

Almost every state has a laboratory for testing waters at the 
office of the state board of health, at the agricultural college or 
at the state university. Some private commercial laboratories 
also undertake the sanitary analysis of water, but, unless such a 
laboratory makes a speciality of water analysis, the results are 
likely to be of doubtful value. Many of the state laboratories, as 
well as the laboratories of the health boards of the cities, make 
no charge for the examinations, and, even when charges are 
made, the fees are usually moderate, seldom exceeding $5 per 
sample. 

Simple Sanitary Tests. — Although the sanitary examina- 
tion of water should, whenever possible, be left to the trained 
analyst, there are a number of relatively simple tests affording 
some indication of the presence of pollution that may be made by 
the well-owner himself. 

In the test for chlorine, the significance of which has been 
pointed out, a glass tumbler, previously thoroughly washed and 
rinsed in the water to be examined, is filled half full of the same. 
To this are added six drops of a solution (obtained from the drug- 
gist) made by dissolving five grains of nitrate of silver in an 
ounce of distilled water. If chlorine is present in appreciable 
amounts, a cloudiness or milkiness, which may be detected by 
holding against a dark surface, will be produced. Since, how- 
ever, chlorine is an ingredient of common salt, which is normally 
present in slight amounts in most waters, a parallel test should 
be made with a near-by well or stream of known purity for 
comparison. 



1 66 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

A rough test for organic matter may be made by adding to a 
bottle (previously washed and rinsed in the water to be tested), 
containing 8 ounces of the water, a teaspoonful of a solution 
(obtained from the druggist) made by dissolving two grains of 
permanganate of potash in an ounce of distilled water in a glass 
stoppered bottle. A half teaspoonful of a 25 per cent solution of 
chemically pure sulphuric acid, also kept in a glass stoppered 
bottle, is then added. The water, which should now be a bright 
pink, is to be allowed to stand for several days. If organic 
matter is present the solution will fade; if absent it will remain 
pink. 

Another important test is that made for the nitrites, the 
presence of which indicates organic matter still in the process of 
decomposition, or, in other words, of recently added pollution. 
The average druggist will probably have to send away for the 
materials required in this test. Two solutions are first made up 
in a glass stoppered bottle: No. i, made by dissolving 16 grains of 
sulpanillic acid in 10 ounces U.S. P. acetic acid; and No. 2, by 
dissolving 4 grains of a-naphthylamine in 10 ounces of U.S. P. 
acetic acid. To eight ounces of the water to be tested, add half a 
teaspoonful of solution No. i, followed by the same amount of 
solution No. 2. Stir and allow to stand ten minutes. The pres- 
ence of nitrites will be indicated by a rich pink color. 

The determination of the presence of dangerous bacteria will 
usually require a laboratory examination. Certain forms of sew- 
age bacteria may, however, be recognized, if present, by the fol- 
lowing test. , To a thoroughly washed and rinsed glass stoppered 
bottle holding about eight ounces of the water to be tested, add 
eight grains of granulated sugar and set in a warm place in the 
bright sunlight. If the bacteria are present, the solution should 
take on, within eight hours, a milkiness due to the presence of 
minute cells and strings of one of the sewage algse. 

Although the reactions outlined above may be given by sub- 
stances other than those causing dangerous pollution, the fact 
that they are obtained is sufficient ground for looking on the 



COMPOSITION AND TESTING OF WELL WATER 167 

water with suspicion, and samples should be sent to a reliable 
laboratory for complete sanitary examination. In the meantime 
the water should be boiled before drinking, or before use for 
washing dishes and vegetables or in the preparation of uncooked 
food. 



CHAPTER XXII. 
PURIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLIES. 

Necessity of Treating the Waters. — The process by which the 
pure waters falhng upon the ground as rain gradually become 
mineralized in their passage through the soils and rocks has been 
described in the preceding chapter. The surface waters, supplied, 
as they are, chiefly from seepage from the ground, carry all the 
mineral matter dissolved by the ground waters, in addition to 
which there is soon added a certain amount of organic matter. 
Swampy waters often take on a deep brown color from the decay- 
ing leaves and wood, algae frequently develop until the water is 
obnoxious both in odor and taste, while bacteria may multiply 
until the water is dangerous to health. 

When such conditions arise, some method of reducing or re- 
moving the objectionable matter becomes imperative. Most of 
the substances, both mineral and organic, which give rise to the 
undesirable qualities may, fortunately, be removed or their effect 
neutralized by certain comparatively simple and relatively inex- 
pensive methods of treatment. Several of the more common of 
such methods are described below. 

Color. — By the color of a water is meant the appearance of 
the clear liquid. It should be distinguished from turbidity, or 
the appearance due to the presence of clay or other suspended 
matter. The color is usually the result of contact with the de- 
caying vegetable matter of swamps, etc., and varies from a faint 
yellowish tinge to a deep amber or dark brown. 

Water is decolorized to a certain extent when stored in reser- 
voirs exposed to sunlight, which process is helped by aeration, but 
it is practically impossible to entirely remove the discoloration. 

The discoloration of the waters of a spring can usually be pre- 
vented by cleaning the spring and carefully removing all leaves 

i68 



PURIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLIES 169 

and other vegetable matter which, by its decay, might discolor 
the water. 

Turbidity. — Turbidity, due to the presence of suspended 
particles of sand, clay, etc., in the water, may be greatly lessened 
by storage for several days in a reservoir free from disturbing 
currents, but in the case of very muddy supplies the water never 
completely clears. 

On the farm the use of any of the various types of filter beds 
is impracticable because of the expense and the skilled labor 
required for their proper operation. Much may be accomplished, 
however, by a careful application of the coagulation method. 

It has been found that a sediment that will go through the 
finest filter may be removed by adding alum (aluminum sul- 
phate), in the ratio of i grain of the chemical to each gallon of 
water (or one pound to 7000 gallons). In practice, it will be 
most convenient to calculate the volume of water in cubic feet 
and allow i ounce of the chemical for each 60 cubic feet. This 
treatment generally reduces the color in addition to removing the 
turbidity. 

Odor and Taste. — In most instances, the odor and taste in 
surface waters are due to the presence of algous and other organ- 
isms of minute size. Aeration, such as that effected by spraying 
the water in the air for a few seconds, often accomplishes a con- 
siderable reduction of the objectionable smell and taste, but 
such treatment Is seldom practicable on farms. The method 
giving most effective relief Is the so-called copper-sulphate treat- 
ment used for removing algse, as described in a subsequent 
paragraph. 

Iron. — Iron, If present In objectionable amounts, is always 
recognizable by Its taste. It is found In many well waters and 
frequently in those of springs, but, owing to the fact that it is 
commonly precipitated on contact with the air, it is not usually 
present in conspicuous amounts In surface waters. It may be 
precipitated by the addition of lime, and removed from the water 
by filtration. 



17© DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

Temporary Hardness. — Temporary hardness, so called from 
the fact that It may be removed by boiling, is due to the presence 
of the bicarbonate of lime in the water. 

While boiling is effective in reducing the temporary hardness, 
its application will naturally be limited to families where the 
amount of water required is small. Where softening has to be 
conducted on a large scale, chemical treatment is the only satis- 
factory method. 

To the water to be softened, lime water or milk of lime, made 
by dissolving commercial lime in water, is added. The lime re- 
acts with the soluble bicarbonate of lime (to which the tempo- 
rary hardness is due), forming an insoluble carbonate which is 
precipitated. About .8 pound of lime to looo gallons or i pound 
to 165 cubic feet is required when the water to be treated contains 
(as determined by chemical analysis) 10 grains of bicarbonate to 
the gallon. Proportional amounts will be required for waters 
with greater or smaller quantities of the bicarbonate. 

Permanent Hardness. — Permanent hardness, or that which 
is not removed by boiling, is due mainly to the presence of the 
sulphates of lime or magnesia. It may be neutralized by the 
addition of soda-ash, or impure carbonate of soda. About i 
pound of soda-ash of 78 per cent strength or i^ pounds of 56 
per cent strength are required to each 1000 gallons of water or 
each 135 cubic feet. 

The chemical is usually added, after being dissolved and fil- 
tered, by mechanical appliances to the water of tanks or settling 
basins. By its action, the soluble sulphate of lime is converted 
into the insoluble carbonate and precipitated, leaving sodium sul- 
phate in solution. 

Alkalinity. — Certain well waters of the southern portion of 
the Atlantic Coastal Plain and many of the well and surface 
waters of the arid and semi-arid regions of the West contain 
considerable quantities of alkali, especially sodium carbonate, 
in solution. This gives to light colored vegetables cooked In 
such waters a yellowish color that Is very objectionable, and, 



PURIFICATION OF WATER SUPPLIES 171 

if present in excessive amounts, renders the water unfit for 
drinking. 

There is no entirely satisfactory method of treating these 
waters. A certain amount of rehef is obtained in some cases, 
however, by adding calcium sulphate in the form of gypsum or 
plaster of Paris. This neutralizes, to a greater or less extent, 
the sodium carbonate giving rise to the objectionable alkalinity. 

Algae. — At times, the growth of algae, including the so-called 
slimes as well as a number of more minute organisms, gives rise to 
highly objectionable odors and tastes in waters stored in ponds 
and reservoirs. Ground waters so stored often seem to be par- 
ticularly susceptible to such growths. 

Most of the organisms producing the objectionable features 
in the water are very sensitive to copper in solution, and by the 
use of the latter in amounts that, while fatal to the organisms, are 
harmless to those using the supply for drinking purposes, the 
odor and taste may be largely removed. 

Copper sulphate is the compound used. About i ounce of 
the chemical is added to 30,000 gallons or 4000 cubic feet of water 
when the algous growth is very pronounced ; where slight, i ounce 
to 75,000 gallons or 10,000 cubic feet is sufficient. When the 
waters are high in carbonate of lime, more of the copper sulphate 
will be required, since a certain portion of the sulphate reacts 
with the carbonate. 1 

The chemical is weighed, and then either placed in cloth bags 
and towed over the surface of the reservoir until dissolved, or it 
is dissolved in water and added through a perforated pipe at the 
inlet. Some time may be required to destroy the organisms, 
and a week may elapse before the dead algse, which often have an 
offensive odor, settle to the bottom. For the latter reason, many 
persons consider the copper-sulphate treatment of more benefit if 
applied as a preventive before the algse have formed than as a 
remedy after they have developed. Although not all the offen- 
sive organisms are killed and the process is, moreover, open to 
the other objections mentioned, it may be said that, in general. 



172 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES FOR THE FARM 

a material improvement in odor and taste follows the application 
of the treatment. The cost is slight and the process easily and 
quickly applied, although a second treatment is sometimes re- 
quired. With the possible exception of trout, fish are not likely 
to be affected by copper sulphate in the amounts used in the 
treatment. 

Bacteria. — By far the greater part of the bacteria in water 
are of a harmless nature. Nevertheless water frequently becomes 
polluted with disease-producing bacteria, the removal of which is 
imperative if the supply is to be used for drinking purposes, 

A treatment which has been applied with good results in many 
instances consists in adding chloride or hypochlorite of lime to 
the water. Both of these substances are powerful germicides, 
and I part of the chemical to 7000 parts of water will destroy 
practically all the bacteria present. 

In practice, one pound is commonly used to each 33,000 gal- 
lons or 4500 cubic feet. It is dissolved and fed into the reservoir 
as in the copper-sulphate treatment. If thoroughly disseminated, 
it does its work within half an hour. The cost of the treatment 
is very slight. 

The chief objection to the treatment lies in the fact that the 
chlorine set free in the process remains in solution and gives a 
very objectionable taste to the water. This, however, may be 
removed by drawing the water through a thin layer of iron turn- 
ings before use. 



INDEX 



Air lift: 

description, 127-128. 

use of, 120. 
Algae: 

presence in water, 171. ■ 

treatment of water for, 171. 
Alkalinity : 

of water, 170. 

treatment of water for, 171. 
Alluvium, definition of, 36. 
Analyses, water: 

simple tests, 165-167. 

when desirable, 164. 

where made, 165. 
Anticline, definition of, 39. 
Appalachian Mountain water province, 
Artesian basins, 54. 
Artesian flows: 

location of, 57. 

non-pollution of, 58. 

relation to depth, 58. 

requisites of, 54. 
Artesian flows from: 

glacial materials, 56. 

granite, 56. 

jointed rocks, 55, 56. 

limestone, 55, 56. 

sands and sandstones, 55. 

traps and lavas, 57. 
Artesian water, head of, 109-110. 
Artesian wells, location of, 57. 
Atlantic Coastal Plain water province, 
Augers, well, 90-95. 

Bacteria: 

examinations for, 164. 

presence in water, 164, 172. 

removal of, 172. 

tests for, 166. 
Barometric pressure: 

effect on wells, 137-139. 



Bedding planes: 

ground waters in, 72, 82. 
Boiler waters, 162. 
Bored wells; See Wells, bored. 
Boring: 

cost of, 119. 

methods of, 68, 91-95. 
Buckets, valve: 

description of, 121. 

use of, 120. 
Buckets, wooden: 

description of, 120. 

use of, 120. 



63. Calcium, hydrous sulphate of: 

use to neutralize alkalinity, 171. 
Calcium hypochlorite: 

use to destroy bacteria, 172. 
Calcium oxide, use to neutralize hardness, 

170. 
California type of wells: 

cost of, 119. 

drilling of, 105, 107. 
Calyx drilling, method of, 105, 107. 
Casing-off, method of, 115. 
Casings: 

black iron, 117. 

corrosion of, 102, 117. 

cost of, 119. 

galvanized, 117. 
61. iron, heavy, 70, 71. 

iron, sheet, 70. 

leaks in, 112. 

perforation of, 115. 

setting of, iii, 112, 115. 

tin, 117. 

wood, 117. 
Caverns : 

extent of, 17, 83. 

ground waters in, 43, 83. 
173 



174 



INDEX 



Central Valley (Cal.), water province, 67. 
Chalk: 

definition of, 36, 

porosity of, 29. 
Cistern: 

deflectors, 148. 

filters, 148. 
Cisterns: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 143- 

145- 

combination with wells, 149. 

construction of, 147. 

description of, 143. 

location of, 147. 

size of, 145-146. 

when desirable, 143. 
Clay: 

definition of, 36. 

ground waters in, 41, ^2, 81, 161. 

pollution conditions in, 45, 81. 

porosity of, 29. 

screens used in, 115. 
Cleavage, definition of, 39. 
Cleavage planes, ground waters in, 43. 
Coastal Range water province, 67. 
Color: 

of water, 169. 

removal of, from water, 169. 
Concretions, definition of, 37. 
Conglomerate: 

definition of, 36. 

ground waters in, 43. 

pollution conditions in, 45. 
Contamination, See Pollution. 
Copper sulphate, use of, in removing algae, 

171. 
Corrosion : 

of casings, 102, 117. 

of screens, 114. 
Crystalline rocks: 

artesian flows from, 55. 

ground waters in, 44, 161. 
Curbs and curbings: 

brick, 69-70. 

cement, 70. 

rock, 69-70. 

tile, 70-71. 

wood, 70, 75, 85, 95. 
Cylinders, depth set, 121, 122, 125. 



Dams, construction of, 154. 
Deep well pumps, use of, 120. 
Deflectors, use of, with cisterns, 148. 
Diamond drilling: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 105, 107. 
Dip: 

definition of, 39. 

relation to absorption of water, 31. 
Divining rod: 

experiments with, 48. 

fallacy of, 48. 
Drainage, effect of, on ground water, 86. 
Drilling methods: 

boring, 68, 90^-95. 

California, 105, 107. 

calyx, 105, 107. 

diamond, 105, 107. 

driving, 68, 98-100. 

hydraulic, 105, 107. 

hydraulic rotary, 105, 107. 

jetting, 68, 103, 104. 

percussion, 105, 106. 

punching, 68, 95. 

standard, 105, 106. 

stovepipe, 105, 107. 
Driven w"ells. See Wells, driven. 
Driving, methods of, 68, 98-100. 
Dynamite, use of, in wells, 113. 

Electricity, use of, in pumping, 129. 
Engines, use of, for pumping, 129. 
Evaporation, amount of, 3. 
Explosives, use of, in wells, 113. 

Farms: 

typhoid fever on, i. 

water supplies of, 1,4. 
Faults : 

definition of, 39. 

waters in, 83. 
Filters: 

artificial, 148. 

natural, 99, 100, lOi. 
Filtration, natural, 44-45. 
Flowing wells. See Artesian flows. 
Foliation, definition of; 39. 
Formations, definition of, 38. 
Forests, effect of, on ground waters, 86, 



INDEX 



175 



Fossils, definition of, 38. 
Freezing of pipes, 27, 153. 
Freezing of tanks, 156. 

Gas, occurrence in wells, 88. 

Gasoline engines, use of, for pumping, 129. 

Glacial drift: 

artesian flows from, 56. 

water province, 59. 
Gneiss: 

definition of, 38. 

ground waters in, 44. 
Granite: 

artesian flows from, 56. 

cost of drilling in, 119. • 

definition of, 37. 

ground waters in, 44. 

pollution conditions in, 83. 

porosity of, 29. 
Gravel: 

definition of, 36. 

driven wells in, 40. 

ground waters in, 40. 
Great Basin water province, 66. 
Ground water: 

absorption of, 30-31. 

amount of, in crust, 30. 

depth of, 108-110. 

effect of drainage on, 86. 

effect of forests on, 86. 

from lakes or streams, 31. 

"lakes," 33. 

location of, 48-50. 

mineralization of, no. 

movements, 51, 83. 

occurrence, 28-34, 40. 

pollution of, 45, 46, 164. 

quality of, 109-110. 

recovery of, 4. 

relation of quality to depth, 109-IIO. 

relation to mountains, 32. 

"rivers, "32. 

safety of, in rocks, 44. 

sanitary tests of, 165-167. 

source of, 28. 

source of mineralization of, 45, 1 60. 

temperature of, 33. 
Ground- water, movements in: 

bedding planes, 82. 



Ground-water, movements in: 

caverns, 82. 

faults, 83. 

joints, 82-83. 

open passages, 81, 82, 83. 

rocks, 81-82. 
Ground water, occurrence in: 

caverns, 43. 

cleavage planes, 43. . 

joints, 43, 44. 

pores, 40, 41, 42. 

rocks, See Rock waters. 

Hardness of water: 

cause of, 162. 

treatment for, 170. 
Hard pan: 

definition of, 36. 
Head, fluctuation of, in wells, 133, 138. 
High Plains water province, 64. 
Hot air engines, use of, for pumping, 129. 
Hydraulic drilling, method of, 105, 107. 
Hydraulic rotary drilling: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 105, 107. 

Iron, in water supplies, 169. 

Jetting: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 68, 103-104. 
Joints: 

artesian flows from, 55, 56. 

definition of, 39. 

ground waters in, 44, ^2, 82, 83. 

pollution of waters in, 46. 

Lakes: 

distribution of, 7. 

pollution of, 6. 

purification of, 6-7. 

use for water supplies, 7. 
Lavas, artesian flows from, 57. 
Lime compounds, use of, in water puri- 
fication, 170, 172. 
Limestone: 

artesian flows from, 55-56. 

caverns in, 17, 43, 83. 

cost of drilling in, 119. 



176 



INDEX 



Limestone: 

definition of, 37. 
drilled wells in, 43. 
ground waters in, 43, 83, 161. 
pollution in, 46, 83. 

Marble, definition of, 38. 
Marl, definition of, 36. 
Mississippi-Great Lakes water province, 
64. 

Nitroglycerine, use of, in wells, 113. 

Odor of water, 169. 

Pacific Coast water province, 67. 
Packers, types of, 116. 
Packing, method of, 116. 
Percussion drilling: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 105, 106. 
Piedmont Plateau water province, 62. 
Pipes: 

corrosion of, 102. 

cost of, 153. 

depth laid, 153. 

freezing of, 27, 153. 

lead, use of, 27. 
Plugging, method of, 116. 
Pneumatic tanks: 

advantages of, 158. 

cost of, 159. 

use of, 157-158. 
Pollution of ground waters, 44-47, 81-83, 

164. 
Pollution of springs, 21, 22, 25, 26. 
Pollution of wells: 

artesian, 58. 

deep, II, 112. 

driven, 98. 

dug, 77,83, 84, 86-88. 

general, 75, 164. 
Ponds: 

artificial, 8. 

pollution of, 7-8. 

use of, for water supplies, 8. 
Pores, ground waters in, 40, 41, 42, 81-82. 
Porosity of rocks and soils, 29, 72. 
Pressure tanks. See Pneumatic tanks. 



Pumping: 

gasoline used for, 129, 

power used for, 129. 

windmills used for, 129. 
Pumps: 

centrifugal, 127. 

chain, 120-121. 

deep well, 120, 122, 125. 

force, 125-126. 

pitcher, 121. 

power, 127-129. 

rotary, 127. 

siphon, 127. 

suction, 120-122. 
Punching: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 68, 95. 
Purification of water supplies, 168-172. 

Quartzite: 

cost of drilling in, 119. 

definition of, 37. 

ground waters in, 43. 

porosity of, 29. 
Quicksand: 

ground waters in, 43, 72. 

screens used in, 72, 115. 

troubles with, 40. 

Rainfall: 

absorption of, 4. 

distribution of, 2. 

on roofs, 147. 
Rain water, purity of, 160. 
Rams, hydraulic, use of, 21, 128. 
Reservoirs: 

artificial, 8. 

water supplies from, 154. 
Rivers: 

pollution of, 12. 

use of, for water supplies, 12. 
Rock waters: 

movements of, 52. 

occurrence of, 42-44, 72, 82, 83, 

safety of, 44. 
Rocks : 

absorption of water by, 4, 29, 

air circulation in, 139-142. 

classes of, 35. 



INDEX 



177 



Rocks: 

cost of drilling in, 119. 

description of, 35-39. 

occurrence of water in, 40, 42-44, 83. 

porosity of, 29, 72. 

structures of, 38. 
Rocky Mountain water province, 65. 
Run-off, amount of, 3. 
Running water, convenience of, 151. 

Safety distance of wells, 81. 
Sand: 

absorption of water by, 30. 

artesian flows from, 55. 

definition of, 36. 

driven wells in, 40. 

ground waters in, 40, 72, 82, 160-161. 

pollution conditions in, 40, 82. 

porosity of, 29. 
Sandstone: 

artesian flows from, 55. 

cost of drilling in, 119. 

definition of, 37. 

drilled wells in, 42. 

ground waters in, 42, 82, 161. 

pollution conditions in, 82. 

porosity of, 29. 
Sanitary tests of water, 165. 
Schist : 

definition of, 38. 

ground waters in, 44. 
Schist osity, definition of 39, 
Screens : 

construction of, 114. 

corrosion of, 114. 

incrustation of, lOi. 

natural, 99, 100, loi, I13. 

special, for clays and quicksands, 72, 

115- _ 

use of, in driven wells, 100, 

use of casing as, II5. 
Seepage : 

amount of, 17. 

springs, 13, 14, 17. 

pollution by. See Pollution. 
Shale: 

cost of drilling in, 119. 

definition of, 37. 

ground waters in, 82. 



Shale: 

pollution conditions in, 46, 82. 

porosity of, 29. 
Shooting to increase yield of wells, 113. 
Sierra-Cascade water province, 67. 
Sinks and sink-holes: 

pollution through, 18, 22, 26, 46. 

protection of, 26. 
Siphons, use of, 152. 
Slate: 

definition of, 37. 

ground waters in, 43, 82. 

pollution conditions in, 46, 82. 

porosity of, 29. 
Soapstone: 

definition of, 38. 

improper use of term, 37. 
Soda ash, use of, for softening water, 170. 
Soils: 

absorption of water by, 29. 

porosity of, 29. 
Solution passages. See also Caverns. 

waters in, 43, 72, 83. 
Springs: 

definition of, 13. 

importance of, 21. 

nature of, 6. 

piping of, 27. 

pollution of, 21, 22, 25-26. 

protection of, 22, 26. 

purity of waters, 21. 

situation of, 13. 

size of, 13, 17. 

source of water of, 13. 

supplies from, 153. 

use of, 21. 
Springs, types of: 

artesian, 14. 

fissure, 18. 

gravity, 14. 

seepage, 13, .14, 17. 

tubular, 17. 
Standard drilling: 

cost of, 119. 

method of, 105, 107. 
Steam jet, use of, to increase yield of wells, 

113- 
Stovepipe wells: 
cost of, 119. 



lyS 



INDEX 



Stovepipe wells'. 

method of sinking, 105, 107. 
Streams: 

pollution of, 12. 

use of for water supplies, 12. 
Sunlight, purification of water by, 6-7. 
Surface waters: 

sources of, 6. 

pollution of, 6-8, 12. 

use of for water supplies, 7, 8, 12. 
Syncline, definition of, 39. 

Tanks : 

construction of, 155. 

cost of, 157. 

elevation of, 157. 

freezing of, 156. 

house, 150. 

location of, 155. 

natural, 8. 

pneumatic, See Pneumatic tanks. 

size of, 156. 

water supplies from, 155. 
Taste of water supplies, 169. 
Temperature of ground waters, 33. 
Till: 

definition of, 36, 42. 

dug wells in, 42. 

ground waters in, 42, 81. 

pollution conditions in, 45, 81. 
Trap: 

artesian flows from, 57. 

cost of drilling in, 119. 

definition of, 37. 
Tuff, definition of, 37. 
Turbines, use of, 129. 
Typhoid fever on farms, i. 

Underground: 

streams, 13, 17, 20. 
passages, See Caverns, 
waters. See Ground waters. 

Valve: 

buckets, 120, 121. 
foot, 122. 

Water, See also Ground waters, Rain, 
Springs, Surface waters. 



Water: 

absorption by rocks, 4, 29. 

absorption by soils, 29, 30. 

algae in, 171. 

alkalinity of, 170. 

analysis of, 164. 

bacteria in, 172. 

bacteriological examination of, 164-166. 

boiler, 162. 

color of, 168. 

consumption of, per capita, 157. 

deep-seated, 53. 

hardness of, 162, 170. 

harmful and harmless ingredients in, 163. 

iron in, 169. 

lifting of, 120-130. 

mineralization of , 160. 

occurrence of. See under names of spe- 
ific rocks and soils. 

odor and taste of, 169. 

original purity of, 160. 

pumping of, 120-130. 

purification, artificial, 168-172. 

purification, natural, 6-7. 

running, convenience of, 151-152. 

sanitary tests of, 165-167. 

sources of ground, 28. 

sources of surface, 6. 

suspicious, 163. 

temperature in ground, 33. 

turbidity of, 169. 
Water bearing formations, 35-39. 
Water provinces, principal, 59. 
Water supplies: 

on farms, i. 

purification of, 168-172. 
Water table: 

definition of, 50. 

description of, 50. 

form of, 51. 
Water works: 

dams, use of, 154. 

elevated tanks, use of, 155. 

farm, 151-159- 

gravity supplies from reservoirs, 154. 

gravity supplies from springs, 153. 

gravity supplies from wells, 152. 

siphon, use of, 152. 
Weathered- Rock water province, 61. 



INDEX 



179 



Well augers, 90-95. 
Well waters: 

composition of, 160—164. 

sanitary tests of, 165-167. 

suspicious, 163. 
Wells: 

barometer, 134. 

blowing, 134, 138. 

breathing, 134, 137. 

capacity of, relation of to diameter, 

73- 
casing of, 115. 
cost of, 74, 118, 119. 
depths of, 73. 
effect of barometric pressure on, 137- 

139- 
effect of weather on, 137. 
explosives used in, 113. 
flowing, requisites for, 54. 
fluctuations of head in, 133, 138. 
freezing of, 135-142. 
packing of, 116. 
peculiarities of, 133-142. 
plugging of, 116. 
pollution of, 75, 164. 
protection of, 75. 
roiliness of water in, 134, 138. 
sucking, 135. 

safety of different types, 74. 
supplies from, 152. 
types of deep, 69. 
types of, relation to depth, 73. 
types of, selection, 71. 
types of shallow, 68. 
"weather, " 134. 

yield of, methods of increasing, 113. 
yield of, relation to type, 71. 
yield of, variations, 133, 138. 
Wells, bored: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 89-90. 

cleaning of, 95. 

conditions to which adapted, 68. 

cost of, 119. 

depth of, 95. 

description of, 68. 

limitations of, 73. 

location of, 90. 

protection of, 90. 

sinking of, 90. 



Wells, California type: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 107. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

depths of, 74. 

description of, 105. 
Wells, calyx drilled: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 107. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

description, 105. 
Wells, deep: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 106. 

casing of, 111-I12. 

location of, 108. 

pollution of, 111-112. 

protection of, no. 

types of, 105. 
Wells, diamond drilled: 

advantages and disadvantages, 107. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

cost of, 119. 

depths of, 74. 

description of, 105. 
Wells, driven: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 97. 

cleaning of, loi. 

conditions to which adapted, 68. 

cost of, 119. 

depths of, 41, 98, 100. 

extent of use of, 97. 

limitations of, 73. 

locations of, 98. 

natural filters around, 98-100. 

pollution of, 98. 

screening of, 100. 
' sinking of, 98. 
Wells, dug: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 76. 

caving of, 85. 

cleaning of, 78, 88. 

conditions to which adapted, 68. 

construction of, 84. 

cost of, 119. 

curbing of, 84. 

depths of, 85. 

description of, 68. 

gas in, 88. 

limitations of, 73. 

location of, 76, 81-83. 

pollution of, 77-83, 86-88. 



i8o 



INDEX 



Wells, dug: 

protection of, 68, 88. 

safety distance of, 8i. 

safety of, 77. 

size of, 85. 
Wells, hydraulic drilled: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 107. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

cost of, 119. 

description of, 105. 
Wells, hydraulic-rotary drilled: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 107. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

cost of, 119. 

description of, 105. 
Wells, jet: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 102. 

care of, 103. 

conditions to which adapted, 68. 

cost of, 119. 

depths of, 103. 

description of, 68. 

limitations of, 73. 

location of, 102. 

sinking of, 103. 

size of, 103. 
Wells, percussion drilled, See Wells, stand- 
ard drilled. 



Wells, punched: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 89. 

cleaning of, 95. 

conditions to which adapted, 68. 

cost of, 119. 

depth of, 95. 

description of, 68. 

limitation of, 73. 

location of, 90. 

pollution of, 90. 

protection of, 90. 

sinking of, 95. 
Wells, standard drilled: 

advantages and disadvantages of, 106. 

conditions to which adapted, 105. 

cost of, 119. 

description of, 105. 
Windmills, use of, 129. 
Wood curbings: 

use of in cisterns, 148. 

use of in wells, 70, 75, 85, 95, 117. 



Yield of springs, 13, 17. 
Yield of wells: 

methods of increasing, 113. 

relation to type, 71. 

variations of, 133, 138. 



SEP 8 1912 



'm^;- 



